DIGITAL MODULATION

Digital Transmission
Current networks have moved almost entirely to digital

modulation Why Digital? Increase System Capacity (voice compression) more efficient modulation Error control coding, equalizers, etc. => lower power needed Add additional services/features (SMS, caller ID, etc..) Reduce Cost Improve Security (encryption possible) Data service and voice treated same (3G systems) Called digital transmission but actually Analog signal carrying digital data

Modulation
Modulation - process (or result of the process) of translation the baseband message signal to bandpass (modulated carrier) signal at frequencies that are very high compared to the baseband frequencies. Demodulation is the process of extracting the baseband message back the modulated carrier. An information-bearing signal is nondeterministic, i.e. it changes in an unpredictable manner.

Factors affecting the choice of modulation

Spectral efficiency

It is defined as the ratio of throughput data per hertz. It reflects how efficiently the allocated B/W is utilized, increasing the data rate decreases the pulse width of a digital symbol, which increases the bandwidth of the signal. Different modulation techniques differ in respect how well they make this trade off between rate and allowable B/W.

Factors affecting the choice of modulation

Power efficiency
It is the measure of how favorably the trade off between the fidelity and signal power is made. (Eb/No). For greater noise immunity we have to increase the signal power, but the amount by which the signal power is increased is limited by a specific amount of achievable fidelity ( an acceptable bit error probability)

Digital Modulation Techniques

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): change amplitude with each symbol frequency constant low bandwidth requirements very susceptible to interference Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): change frequency with each symbol needs larger bandwidth Phase Shift Keying (PSK): Change phase with each symbol More complex robust against interference Most systems use either a form of FSK or PSK

Modulation techniques
Linear modulation (e.g. QAM)
In this the amplitude of the signal varies with the modulating signal m(t)

B/W efficient so attractive for use in wireless communications. Uses more battery power because of need for linear amplifiers. Introduces distortion with power efficient non-linear amplifiers.

Non-linear modulation(PSK, FSK)

Usually the signal frequency (or phase) varies with the modulating signal

Can use power efficient non-linear amplifiers Spectrum inefficient.

Definitions

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Baseband Data ASK modulated signal

Acos(t)

Acos(t)

ASK demonstrates poor performance, as it is heavily affected by noise, fading, and interference

Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

Baseband Data BFSK modulated signal f1 f0 f0 f1 where f0 =Acos(c-)t and f1 =Acos(c+)t
Example: The ITU-T V.21 modem standard uses FSK FSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple frequencies as different states

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

Baseband Data BPSK modulated signal s0 s1 where s0 =-Acos( ct) and s1 =Acos( ct) s0 s1

Major drawback - rapid amplitude change between symbols due to phase discontinuity, which requires infinite bandwidth. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) demonstrates better performance than ASK and BFSK BPSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple phases and amplitudes as different states

Differential Modulation
In the transmitter, each symbol is modulated relative to the previous symbol and modulating signal In the receiver, the current symbol is demodulated using the previous symbol as a reference. The previous symbol serves as an estimate of the channel. A no-change condition causes the modulated signal to remain at the same 0 or 1 state of the previous symbol.

DPSK
DPSK = Differential phase-shift keying: In the transmitter, each symbol is modulated relative to the phase of the immediately preceding signal element and the data being transmitted.

Pulse-Duration Modulation (PDM)

Modulation in which the duration of pulses is varied in accordance with the modulating signal.
Deprecated synonyms: pulselength modulation, pulse-width modulation.

Used e.g. in telephone switching equipment such as a private branch exchange (PBX)

Demodulation & Detection Demodulation

-Is process of removing the carrier signal to obtain the original signal waveform

Detection - extracts the symbols from the waveform

-Coherent detection -Non-coherent detection

Coherent Detection
An estimate of the channel phase and attenuation is recovered. It is then possible to reproduce the transmitted signal and demodulate. Requires a replica carrier wave of the same frequency and phase at the receiver. The received signal and replica carrier are crosscorrelated using information contained in their amplitudes and phases.

Also known as synchronous detection Applicable to

-Phase Shift Keying (PSK) -Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) -Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Non-Coherent Detection
Requires no reference wave; does not exploit phase reference information (envelope detection)
- Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) - Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) - Non coherent detection is less complex than coherent detection (easier to implement), but has worse performance.

Geometric Representation
Digital modulation involves choosing a particular signal si(t) form a finite set S of possible signals. For binary modulation schemes a binary information bit is mapped directly to a signal and S contains only 2 signals, representing 0 and 1.

For M-ary keying S contains more than 2 signals and each represents more than a single bit of information. With a signal set of size M, it is possible to transmit up to log2M bits per signal.

Constellation diagram
Graphical

representation of the complex envelope of each possible symbol state

- The x-axis represents the in-phase component and the y-axis the quadrature component of the complex envelope - The distance between signals on a constellation diagram relates to how different the modulation waveforms are and how easily a receiver can differentiate between them.

QPSK
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) can be interpreted as two independent BPSK systems (one on the I-channel and one on Q), and thus the same performance but twice the bandwidth efficiency. Large envelope variations occur due to abrupt phase transitions, thus requiring linear amplification

QPSK Constellation Diagram

Q Q I

Carrier phases {0, /2, , 3/2}

Carrier phases {/4, 3/4, 5/4, 7/4}

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying has twice the bandwidth efficiency of BPSK since 2 bits are transmitted in a single modulation symbol

Types of QPSK
Q I Q I Q I

onventional QPSK

Offset QPSK

/4 QPSK

Conventional QPSK has transitions through zero (i.e. 1800 phase transition). Highly linear amplifiers required. non linear amplification brings back the filtered sidelobes since the fidelity of the signal is lost at small voltage levels i.e. at 0 crossings In Offset QPSK, the phase transitions are limited to 900, the transitions on the I and Q channels are staggered. I & Q channels are offset in time by half a symbol period In /4 QPSK the set of constellation points are toggled each symbol, so transitions through zero cannot occur. This scheme produces the lowest envelope variations. All QPSK schemes require linear power amplifiers

Multi-level (M-ary) Phase and Amplitude Modulation

16 QAM

16 PSK

16 APSK

Amplitude and phase shift keying can be combined to transmit several bits per symbol.
- Often referred to as linear as they require linear amplification. More bandwidth-efficient, but more susceptible to noise.

For M=4, 16QAM has the largest distance between points, but requires very linear amplification. 16PSK has less stringent linearity requirements, but has less spacing between constellation points, and is therefore more affected by noise.

MSK
Minimum Shift Keying is a special type of Continuous phase frequency shift keying wherein the modulation index is equal to 0.5. The modulation index of corresponds to the minimum frequency spacing that allows two FSK signal to be coherently orthogonal. CPFSK signal is represented as S(t) = A cos[2{fc+(h/2T)dn}t+n-nhdn] Where d=input data bits {+1,-1} h=2fdT = modulation index When h=0.5 CPFSK (MSK) yields best performance. The name MSK because of the minimum frequency spacing required that allows orthogonal detection with few errors. MSK posses properties like constant envelope, spectral efficiency and good BER performance.

GMSK

Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) is a derivative of MSK. In GMSK the sidelobe level of the spectrum is further reduced by passing the modulating signal through a premodulation gaussian pulse-shaping filter which further smooths out the phase trajectory of the MSK signal and hence stabilizes the instantaneous frequency variations over time.
data
Gaussian lowwpass filter FM Transmitter

GMSK output

GMSK
The RF bandwidth is controlled by the Gaussian low-pass filter bandwidth. The degree of filtering is expressed by multiplying the filter 3dB bandwidth (B) by the bit period of the transmission (T), i.e. by BT
Filtering introduces ISI but degradation is not severe if BT>0.5 GMSK reduces the unwanted side lobes More power efficient and spectrally efficient Currently used in GSM systems.

Advanced Frequency Shift Keying

Bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance

between the carrier frequencies Special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts MSK (Minimum Shift Keying) Bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is doubled Depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower frequency, original or inverted is chosen The frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other Even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass filter GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM cellular network

Advanced Phase Shift Keying

BPSK (Binary Phase Shift

Keying): Two symbols used : 0 and 1 are two sinusoids with 180-degree phase difference Phase shifts according to the voltage level of the baseband signal very simple PSK low spectral efficiency robust, used e.g. in satellite systems

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Advanced Phase Shift Keying (cont)

QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift

Keying): 2 bits coded as one symbol Four Transmitted symbols assume four different phase values of 45, 135, 225, 315-degrees The difference between the phases is 90- degrees Symbol determines shift of sine wave Needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK (high bandwidth efficiency) more complex
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QPSK Quick Review

In QPSK, we use two bits to represent on

one of four phases. Example: We represent 1 by a Ve Voltage 0 by a +Ve Voltage Then the QPSK symbol is decided as follows. 01 : cos(2fct + /4), 45 11 : cos(2fct + 3/4), 135 10 : cos(2fct + 5/4), 225 00 : cos(2fct + 7/4), 315 Why do we choose this mapping? cos(A+B) = cos(A)cos(B) sin(A)sin(B)
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/4 - QPSK
/4- QPSK is a form of QPSK modulation

The QPSK signal constellation is shifted by 45 degrees

each symbol interval T Phase transitions from one symbol to the next are restricted to 45 degrees and 135 degrees

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/4 QPSK (Example)

Successive symbols are taken from the two constellations first symbol (1 1) is taken from the 'blue' constellation the second symbol (0 0) is taken from the 'green' constellation.

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