Tissue: The Living Fabric Individual body cells specialized

Each type performs specific functions that maintain homeostasis

Tissues
Groups of cells similar in structure that perform common or related function

Histology
Study of tissues

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Types of Primary Tissues Epithelial tissue

Covers

Connective tissue
Supports

Muscle tissue
Produces movement

Nerve tissue
Controls

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Figure 4.1 Overview of four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.

Nervous tissue: Internal communication Brain Spinal cord Nerves Muscle tissue: Contracts to cause movement Muscles attached to bones (skeletal) Muscles of heart (cardiac) Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth) Epithelial tissue: Forms boundaries between different environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters Lining of digestive tract organs and other hollow organs Skin surface (epidermis)

Connective tissue: Supports, protects, binds other tissues together Bones Tendons Fat and other soft padding tissue

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Studying Human Tissue: Microscopy Tissue is fixed

Preserved

Cut
Sliced thin enough to transmit light or electrons

Stained
Enhances contrast

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Epithelial Tissue (Epithelium) Form boundaries Two main types (by location)
Covering and lining epithelia
On external and internal surfaces

Glandular epithelia
Secretory tissue in glands

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Epithelial Tissue Functions Protection Absorption Filtration Excretion Secretion Sensory reception

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Five Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues Polarity Specialized contacts Supported by connective tissues Avascular, but innervated Can regenerate

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Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue: Polarity Cells have polarity

Apical surface (upper free) exposed to exterior or cavity Basal surface (lower, attached) Both surfaces differ in structure and function

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Apical Surface of Epithelial Tissues May be smooth & slick Most have microvilli (e.g., brush border of intestinal lining)
Increase surface area

Some have cilia (e.g., lining of trachea)

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Basal Surface of Epithelial Tissues Noncellular basal lamina

Glycoprotein and collagen fibers lies adjacent to basal surface Adhesive sheet Selective filter Scaffolding for cell migration in wound repair

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Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue: Specialized Contacts Covering and lining epithelial tissues fit closely together
Form continuous sheets

Specialized contacts bind adjacent cells

Lateral contacts
Tight junctions Desmosomes

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Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue: Connective Tissue Support All are supported by connective tissue Reticular lamina
Deep to basal lamina Network of collagen fibers

Basement membrane
Basal lamina + reticular lamina Reinforces epithelial sheet Resists stretching and tearing Defines epithelial boundary
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Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue: Avascular but Innervated No blood vessels in epithelial tissue
Must be nourished by diffusion from underlying connective tissues

Is supplied by nerve fibers

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Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue: Regeneration High regenerative capacity Stimulated by loss of apical-basal polarity and lateral contacts
Some exposed to friction Some exposed to hostile substances

If adequate nutrients can replace lost cells by cell division

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Glandular Epithelia Gland

One or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid called a secretion

Classified by
Site of product releaseendocrine or exocrine Relative number of cells forming the gland
unicellular (e.g., goblet cells) or multicellular

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Endocrine Glands Ductless glands

Secretions not released into a duct

Secrete (by exocytosis) hormones that travel through lymph or blood to their specific target organs Target organs respond in some characteristic way

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Exocrine Glands Secretions released onto body surfaces (skin) or into body cavities More numerous than endocrine glands Secrete products into ducts Examples include mucous, sweat, oil, and salivary glands

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Unicellular Exocrine Glands The only important unicellular glands are mucous cells and goblet cells Found in epithelial linings of intestinal and respiratory tracts All produce mucin
Dissolves in water to form mucus
Slimy protective, lubricating coating

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Figure 4.4 Goblet cell (unicellular exocrine gland).

Microvilli

Secretory vesicles containing mucin

Golgi apparatus Rough ER

Nucleus

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Multicellular Exocrine Glands Multicellular exocrine glands are composed of a duct and a secretory unit Usually surrounded by supportive connective tissue
Supplies blood and nerve fibers Extends into and divides gland into lobes

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Classification of Multicellular Glands By structure and type of secretion

Structure
Simple glands (unbranced duct) or compound glands (branched duct) Cells tubular, alveolar, or tubuloalveolal

Type of secretion
Merocrine most secrete products by exocytosis as produced Holocrine accumulate products within then rupture Apocrine accumulates products within but only apex ruptures controversy if exist in humans
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Figure 4.5 Types of multicellular exocrine glands. Simple duct structure (duct does not branch) Compound duct structure (duct branches)

Tubular secretory structure

Simple tubular

Example
Intestinal glands

Simple branched tubular

Example Stomach (gastric)

glands

Compound tubular

Example
Duodenal glands of small intestine

Alveolar secretory structure

Simple alveolar Simple branched alveolar Example No important example in humans Compound alveolar Compound tubuloalveolar

Example Sebaceous (oil) glands

Duct

Example
Mammary glands

Example
Salivary glands

Surface epithelium
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Secretory epithelium

Connective Tissue Most abundant and widely distributed of primary tissues Four main classes
Connective tissue proper Cartilage Bone Blood

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Major Functions of Connective Tissue Binding and support Protecting Insulating Storing reserve fuel Transporting substances (blood)

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Characteristics of Connective Tissue Three characteristics make connective tissues different from other primary tissues
Have mesenchyme (an embryonic tissue) as their common tissue of origin Have varying degrees of vascularity (blood vessels) Have extracellular matrix
Connective tissue not composed mainly of cells Largely nonliving extracellular matrix separates cells
So can bear weight, withstand tension, endure abuse
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Structural Elements of Connective Tissue Three elements

Ground substance Fibers Cells

Composition and arrangement varies in different connective tissues

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Ground Substance
Unstructured material that fills space between cells
Medium through which solutes diffuse between blood capillaries and cells

Components
Interstitial fluid Cell adhesion proteins ("glue" for attachment) Proteoglycans
Protein core + large polysaccharides (chrondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid) Trap water in varying amounts, affecting viscosity of ground substance

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Connective Tissue Fibers Three types of fibers provide support

Collagen
Strongest and most abundant type Tough; provides high tensile strength

Elastic fibers
Networks of long, thin, elastin fibers that allow for stretch and recoil

Reticular
Short, fine, highly branched collagenous fibers (different chemistry and form than collagen fibers) Branch, forming networks that offer more "give"
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Cells
"Blasts" cells
Immature forum; mitotically active; secrete ground substance and fibers Fibroblasts in connective tissue proper Chondroblasts in cartilage Osteoblasts in bone Hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow "Cyte" cells Mature form; maintain matrix Chondrocytes in cartilage Osteocytes in bone
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Other Cell Types in Connective Tissues

Fat cells
Store nutrients

White blood cells

Neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes Tissue response to injury

Mast cells
Initiate local inflammatory response against foreign microorganisms they detect

Macrophages
Phagocytic cells that "eat" dead cells, microorganisms; function in immune system

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Covering and Lining Membranes Composed of at least two primary tissue types
An epithelium bound to underlying connective tissue proper Are simple organs

Three types
Cutaneous membranes Mucous membranes Serous membranes
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Cutaneous Membranes Skin Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) attached to a thick layer of connective tissue (dermis) Dry membrane

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Figure 4.11a Classes of membranes.

Cutaneous membrane The cutaneous membrane (the skin) covers the body surface.

Cutaneous membrane (skin)

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Mucous Membranes
Mucosa indicates location not cell composition All called mucosae
Line body cavities open to the exterior (e.g., Digestive, respiratory, urogenital tracts)

Moist membranes bathed by secretions (or urine) Epithelial sheet lies over layer of connective tissue called lamina propria May secrete mucus

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Figure 4.11b Classes of membranes.

Mucous membranes Mucous membranes line body cavities that are open to the exterior. Mucosa of nasal cavity Mucosa of mouth Esophagus lining Mucosa of lung bronchi

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Serous Membranes
Serosaefound in closed ventral body cavity Simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) resting on thin areolar connective tissue Parietal serosae line internal body cavity walls Visceral serosae cover internal organs Serous fluid between layers Moist membranes Pleurae, pericardium, peritoneum

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Figure 4.11c Classes of membranes.

Serous membranes Serous membranes line body cavities that are closed to the exterior.

Parietal pleura
Visceral pleura Visceral Parietal pericardium pericardium Parietal peritoneum Visceral peritoneum

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Tissue Repair Necessary when barriers are penetrated Cells must divide and migrate Occurs in two major ways
Regeneration
Same kind of tissue replaces destroyed tissue Original function restored

Fibrosis
Connective tissue replaces destroyed tissue Original function lost

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Steps in Tissue Repair: Step 1 Inflammation sets stage

Release of inflammatory chemicals Dilation of blood vessels Increase in vessel permeability Clotting occurs

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Figure 4.12. Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis.

Slide 1

Scab Epidermis

Vein Blood clot in incised wound Inflammatory chemicals Migrating white blood cell
1 Inflammation sets the stage: Severed blood vessels bleed. Inflammatory chemicals are released. Local blood vessels become more permeable, allowing white blood cells, fluid, clotting proteins, and other plasma proteins to seep into the injured area. Clotting occurs; surface dries and forms a scab.
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Artery

Steps in Tissue Repair: Step 2 Organization restores blood supply

The blood clot is replaced with granulation tissue Epithelium begins to regenerate Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers to bridge the gap Debris is phagocytized

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Figure 4.12. Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis.

Slide 2

Regenerating epithelium

Area of granulation tissue ingrowth Fibroblast

Macrophage

Budding capillary 2 Organization restores the blood supply: The clot is replaced by granulation tissue, which restores the vascular supply. Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that bridge the gap. Macrophages phagocytize dead and dying cells and other debris. Surface epithelial cells multiply and migrate over the granulation tissue.
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Steps in Tissue Repair: Step 3 Regeneration and fibrosis

The scab detaches Fibrous tissue matures; epithelium thickens and begins to resemble adjacent tissue Results in a fully regenerated epithelium with underlying scar tissue

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Figure 4.12. Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis.

Slide 3

Regenerated epithelium

Fibrosed area

3 Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair: The fibrosed area matures and contracts; the epithelium thickens. A fully regenerated epithelium with an underlying area of scar tissue results.
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Regenerative Capacity in Different Tissues

Regenerate extremely well
Epithelial tissues, bone, areolar connective tissue, dense irregular connective tissue, blood-forming tissue

Moderate regenerating capacity

Smooth muscle and dense regular connective tissue

Virtually no functional regenerative capacity

Cardiac muscle and nervous tissue of brain and spinal cord New research shows cell division does occur
Efforts underway to coax them to regenerate better

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Developmental Aspects Primary germ layers

Superficial to deep: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm Formed early in embryonic development Specialize to form the four primary tissues
Nerve tissue arises from ectoderm Muscle and connective tissues arise from mesoderm Epithelial tissues arise from all three germ layers

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Figure 4.13 Embryonic germ layers and the primary tissue types they produce.

16-day-old embryo (dorsal surface view) Muscle and connective tissue (mostly from mesoderm)

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Epithelium (from all three germ layers)

Inner lining of digestive system (from endoderm)

Nervous tissue (from ectoderm)

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Aging Tissues
Normally function well through youth and middle age if adequate diet, circulation, and infrequent wounds and infections Epithelia thin with increasing age so more easily breached Tissue repair less efficient Bone, muscle and nervous tissues begin to atrophy DNA mutations possible increased cancer risk
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