Rural Community Development

Shekinah Delgado Anne Nicole Cordero

Community Development
can be viewed as an approach to rural development
a continuous process of social action by which the people of a community:

a. Define their common and group needs.

b. Organize themselves formally and informally for democratic planning action.

Community Development
c. Make group and individual plans to meet their needs and solve their problems.
d. Execute their plans with maximum reliance upon their own resources. e. Supplement their resources from outside the community, when, necessary, with services and personnel.

Community Development
Its distinctive feature is the participation by the people themselves in efforts to improve their levels of living with reliance as much as possible on their own initiative; and the provision of technical and other services in ways which encourage initiative, self-help and mutual help and make them more effective.

Community Development
Human settlements are found both in rural, as well as, urban areas, but rural development programs are designed to affect rural people.
Commonly addressed issues are rural poverty, ,illiteracy, ill health, regional disparity, unequal power or the other Rural development aims to improve the standard of living of rural people. Thus community development can be viewed as a strategy to rural development.

Rural Community Development

encompasses a range of approaches and activities that aim to improve the welfare and livelihoods of people living in rural areas. As a branch of community development, these approaches pay attention to social issues particularly community organizing. This is in contrast to other forms of rural development that focus on public works (e.g. rural roads and electrification) and technology (e.g. tools and techniques for improving agricultural production).

Rural Community Development

Rural Development approach can be defined as a set of goals, operation process, terminal objectives and structural arrangements designed to bring out change and development in the lives of the rural people. Rural development strategy / approaches are also viewed as strategic interventions:
1. In the rural economy through change in production and pricing, fiscal, monetary and credit policies. 2. In the rural institutions directed towards the creation of favorable changes in the rural infrastructure.

Rural Community Development

3. In the social structure by bringing about change in properly relationship distribution of rights and privileges by different rural classes.
4. In the power and authority structure at various levels 5. In the cultural matters, in ideas beliefs about nature, man and society.

THEORIES

The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (1960)

W. W. Rostow

Five Stages-of-growth

Traditional Society
Preconditions for Take-off Take-off Drive to Maturity Age of High Mass-Consumption

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The Traditional Society

developed within limited production functions. a ceiling existed on the level of attainable output per head. As in agriculture, the level of productivity was limited by the inaccessibility of modern science. Family and clan played a large role in social organization The center of gravity of political power generally lay in the regions, in the hands of those who owned or controlled the land.
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The Preconditions for Take-off

Initially developed as the insights of modern science began to be translated into new production functions in both agriculture and industry Arise not endogenously but from external intrusion by more advanced societies. The decisive feature was political

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The Take-Off
The proximate stimulus for take-off was mainly technological New industries expand rapidly, yielding profits a large proportion of which are reinvested in new plant. Revolutionary changes in agricultural productivity are an essential condition for successful take-off Basic structure of the economy and the social and political structure of the society are transformed in such a way that a steady rate of growth can be, thereafter, regularly sustained
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The Drive to Maturity

Economy finds its place in the international economy Technology has extended its range Economy demonstrates the capacity to move beyond the original industries which powered its take-off and to absorb and to apply efficiently over a very wide range of its resources the most advanced fruits o modern technology

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The Age of High Mass-Consumption

Leading sectors shift towards durable consumers goods and services: a phase from which Americans are beginning to emerge. Emergence of welfare state

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Beyond Consumption

A Dynamic Theory of Production

Development of Underdevelopment (1969)

Andre Gunder Frank

Underdevelopment is not original or traditional and that neither the past nor the present of the underdeveloped countries resembles in any important respect the past of the now developed countries.

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Hypothesis #1
That in contrast to the development of the world metropolis which is no ones satellite, the development of the national and other subordinate metropoles is limited by their satellite status

Hypothesis #2
That the satellites experience their greatest economic development and especially their most classically capitalist industrial development is end when their ties to their metropolis are weakest.

Corollary of the Second Hypothesis

When the metropolis expands to incorporate previously isolated regions into the world-wide system, the previous development and industrialization of the region is choked off or channeled into directions which are not selfperpetuating and promising.

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Hypothesis #3
The regions which are the most underdeveloped and feudalseeming today are the ones which had the closest ties to the metropolis in the past

Hypothesis #4
Latifundium, irrespective of the whether it appears as a plantation or a hacienda today, was typically born as a commercial enterprise which created for itself the institution which permitted it to respond to increased demand in the world or national market by expanding the amount of its land, capital and labor and to increase the supply of its product

Hypothesis #5
The latifundia which appear isolated, subsistence-based, and semifeudal today saw the demand for their products or their productive capacity decline and that they are to be found principally in the above-named former agricultural and mining export region whose economic activity decline in general.

The Rise and Future Demise of the World Capitalist System: Concepts for Comparative Analysis (1979)
Immanuel Wallerstein

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Marxism
Oppositional, hence, critical doctrine one of its great strengths
The Marxist critics saw in abstracted models concrete rationalization, and they argued their case fundamentally by pointing to the failure of their opponents to analyze the social whole.

Gives us a better account of social reality

Official state of doctrine in many countries No longer exclusively an oppositional doctrine The law of development and truth must develop through struggle
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Stages in the Development of a Social Structure

Not a priori but a posteriori, meaning that we cannot predict the future concretely, but we can predict the past.
Fundamental error of ahistorical social science: reify parts of the totality into such units and then to compare these reified structures

If within a capitalist world-economy, we define one state as feudal, a second as capitalist, and a third as socialist, then and only then can we pose the question: can a country skip from the feudal stage to the socialist stage of national development without passing through capitalism?
Stages of social systems (totalities) minisystems and worldsystems
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Stages in the Development of a Social Structure

The capitalist world-economy the only one world-system in existence
Existence within it of a division of labor defining characteristic of a social system

Minisystem an entity that has within it a complete division of labor, and a single cultural framework Found only in very simple agricultural or hunting and gathering societies Such no longer exist in the world

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World-System
a unit with single division of labor, and a multiple cultural systems
2 varieties: (1) With a common political system/ world-empires (2) Without a common political system/ world-economies World-economies unstable structures leading either towards disintegration or conquest by one group and hence transformation into a world-empire

World-empires basically redistributive in economic form Bred clusters of merchants who engaged in economic exchange
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Capitalism
Full development and economic predominance of market trade Underdevelopment necessary product of four centuries of capitalism itself

Existence of free labor defining characteristic of a capitalist mode of production

Emerged in the 16th century Became a world economic system only in the 19th century Means as a labor commodity
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Capitalism
Involves not only appropriation of surplus value by owner but an appropriation of surplus of the whole world-economy by core-areas
Mode of production, production for profit in a market World capitalist economy does not permit true imperium

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 2 stages in historical development:

(1) socialism (2) communism

Socialism vs. communism one realizable in the present and one only in the future
3 stages of bourgeois rule:

(1) post-revolutionary government

(2) a socialist state (3) communism

22nd Congress of CPSU invented the fourth stage in between the second and third
Socialist state a state of the whole people
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 Communism characteristic not of nation-states but of the worldeconomy as a whole Wage labor one of the modes in which labor is recruited and recompensed in the labor market Alternative modes: Slavery Coerced cash-crop production Sharecropping Tenancy

3 structural positions in a worldeconomy: Core Periphery

Semiperiphery
Ethno-nations phenomena of world economies and much of the enormous confusion that has surrounded the concrete analysis of their functioning can be attributed quite simply to the fact that they have been analyzed as though they existed within the nation-states of this world-economy, instead of within the world-economy as a whole
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Modes of labor control:

Slavery Coerced cash-crop

Stages
Transitional stage blurry non-concept with no operational indicators
Stage of agricultural capitalism there is a world market for which men produced largely agricultural products for sale and profit

Stage of industrial capitalism industrial production is no longer a minor aspect of the world market but comprises an ever larger percentage of world gross production and world gross supplies
Stage of consolidation of the industrial capitalist world-economy a stage of revolutionary turmoil

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3 Major Mechanisms
Concentration of military strength in the hands of the dominant forces
Pervasiveness of an ideological commitment to the system as a whole

The division of the majority into a larger lower stratum and a smaller middle stratum

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2 Fundamental Contradictions
Whereas in the short run the maximization of profit requires maximizing the withdrawal of surplus from immediate consumption of the majority, in the long run the continued production of surplus requires a mass demand which can only be created by redistributing the surplus withdrawn.
Whenever the tenants of privilege seek to coopt an oppositional movement by including them in a minor share of the privilege, they may no doubt eliminate opponents in the short run; but they also up the ante for the next oppositional movement created in the next crisis of the world-economy.

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Rethinking Development Theory: Insights from East Asia and Latin America (1989/1994)
Gary Gereffi

Introduction
East Asia and Latin America fertile spawning ground for a variety of theories and concepts dealing with the Third World development
Uneven weight of evidence across these 2 regions Biased theories and concepts reflect events in only some of the east Asian and Latin American nations misinterpret the reality of others

Rethink some of the key suppositions of development theory

Identify the fallacies that have been generated by a selective reading of the evidence from East Asia and Latin America
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Theoretical Perspectives: Perceptions and Misconceptions

The new international division of labor traces the recent surge of manufactured exports from the Third World to the emergence of a global manufacturing system based on labor-intensive export platforms established by transnational corporations in low-wage areas Created in order to exploit reserve armies of labor on a world scale by using the advanced transport and communication technologies that permit segmentation of the production process
Globalization of production argues that the shift of manufacturing capacity toward decentralized production sites is occurring in both the advanced and the developing countries; reflects the increasingly centralized control and coordination by transnational corporations (TNCs)
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Theoretical Perspectives: Perceptions and Misconceptions

Newly industrializing countries high-growth, diversified economies of East Asia and Latin America
Development strategies outward-oriented development strategies of the East Asian NICs led to better economic performance in terms of exports, economic growth, and employment rather than inwardoriented development strategies of Latin America Semiperipheral countries World systems theory Identifies intermediate stratum between core and peripheral nations that promotes the stability and legitimacy of the threetiered world economy.
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Theoretical Perspectives: Perceptions and Misconceptions

Dependent development dependency theory Structural dependency on foreign capital and external markets in rapidly industrializing Third World nations like the Latin American and East Asian NICs constraints and distorts, but is not incompatible with, capitalist economic development

Developmental state oriented to selective but substantial intervention in their economies in order to promote rapid capital accumulation, and industrial progress
Cultural factors rapid growth of East Asian NICs Confucian beliefs Facilitated the national consensus around high-speed economic growth evident in Japan and East Asian NICs
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Theoretical Perspectives: Perceptions and Misconceptions

Undue emphasis on labor-intensive, assembly oriented export production in the NICs, which in retrospect characterizes only the initial phase of their export efforts.
The globalization of production approach correctly highlights the emergence of a decentralized global manufacturing system in which production capacity is dispersed to an unprecedented number of developing as well as industrialized countries. The East Asian and Latin American NICs are not really newly industrializing, nor have they developed in response to the same kinds of global dynamics. The contrast between the outward-oriented and inward-oriented development strategies of the East Asian and Latin American NICs, respectively, is overdrawn.

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Theoretical Perspectives: Perceptions and Misconceptions

The semiperipheral zone encompasses an extremely diverse range of countries.
Dependent development is applicable to the NICs in East Asia as well as Latin America.

While there is a substantial degree of state intervention in the economies of the Latin American and East Asian NICs, the developmental state is not a singular phenomenon in two regions.
Simplistic cultural arguments run into a variety of problems.

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The NICs in Historical and World-Systems Context

East Asia and Latin America industrial success stories:
Rapid and generally sustained economic growth Growing diversification of industrial production that permits each nation to make ever broader changes of manufactured goods Fast expansion of exports with an emphasis on manufacturers

Manufacturing cornerstone of development for both countries Agriculture declined in these economies since 1965 East Asian NICs launched major export drives; more dependent on export commodities than Latin American NICs

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The NICs in Historical and World-Systems Context

Latin American NICs sought to deepen their industrialization in the mid-1960s by opening doors to new waves of DFI from the U.S., Western Europe, and Japan (in response to Great Depression) Used to focus on export-oriented projects , shifted to importsubstituting investments postwar
East Asian NICs began economic growth after colonization Motivated by the principle of dynamic competitive advantage

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The Dynamic Interplay of Inward- and Outward-Oriented Industrialization

5 main phases of industrial development:
Outward looking: Commodity export phase Primary export-oriented industrialization (EOI) Secondary export-oriented industrialization (EOI) Inward Looking: Primary import-substituting industrialization (ISI) Secondary import-substituting industrialization (ISI)

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The Dynamic Interplay of Inward- and Outward-Oriented Industrialization

Conclusions:
The contrast often made between the Latin American and the East Asian NICs as representing inward- and outward-oriented industrial paths, respectively is oversimplified.

The early phases of industrialization were common to all the Latin American and East Asian NICs.
The duration and timing of these development patterns vary by region .

The development trajectories of the Latin American and East Asian NICs show some signs of convergence in the 1970s & 1980s.
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Dependent Development in Latin America and East Asia

East Asian NICs 2 distinct kinds of dependency: The dependency on American aid Trade dependency
4 main transnational economic linkages: Foreign aid Foreign trade Direct foreign investment Foreign loans
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Dependent Development in Latin America and East Asia

How they affect development strategies and outcomes: They represent economic resources that may be used to finance development. The availability of these resources is conditioned by factors beyond as well as within control of nation-states. The destination and use of TNELs in a country directly affect the power of domestic actors.

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The Emergent Global Manufacturing System: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis

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The Declining Significance of Industrialization

2 basic conclusions about the theoretical status of industrialization in the contemporary world economy:
Industrialization and development are not synonymous. Just as industrialization cannot be equated with development, neither does it guarantee proximity to core status in the world system.

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Commodity Chains and Export/Marketing Networks

Commodity Chain a network of labor and production processes whose end result is a finished commodity
The dynamic growth of the NICs has revolved around their success in expanding the production and exports of a wide range of consumer products destined mainly for core-country markets. The extension of commodity chains beyond production to include the flow of products to the final consumer is essential for our ability to detect where economic surplus is concentrated in a global industry.

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Differentiating the Roles of the NICs in the World Economy

Four basic types of economic roles:
(1) The commodity-export role (2)The export platform role

(3)The specification-contracting role

(4)The component-supplier role

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FIN
Thank you!
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