Chapter 5 Perception, Attitudes, and Personality

Learning Goals
Understand human perceptual processes and how people form impressions of others Describe types of perceptual error and their effects on information people get from their environment Explain attribution processes and their effects on perception and attitudes

Learning Goals (Cont.)

Discuss the nature of attitudes, how they form and how they change Explain the different views of human personality development Discuss some dimensions of personality and several personality types Recognize the effects of different cultures on perception, attitudes, and personality

Chapter Overview
Introduction Perception Attitudes Personality International Aspects of Perception, Attitudes, and Personality Ethical Issues in Perception, Attitudes, and Personality

Perception, Attitudes, and Personality

Perception Attitudes

Chapter 5

Personality

Perception
A cognitive process: lets a person make sense of stimuli from the environment Affects all senses: sight, touch, taste, smell, hearing Includes inputs to person and choice of inputs to which the person attends Stimulus sources: people, events, physical objects, ideas Helps adaptation to a changing environment

Perception (Cont.)
Perceptual process
Target: object of the persons perceptual process Threshold: minimum information from target for the person to notice the target
Detection threshold: point at which person notices something has changed in her or his environment Recognition threshold: point at which person can identify the target or change in the target See text book Figure 5.1

Perception (Cont.)
Perceptual process (cont.)
Target emerges from its surrounding context sometimes slowly, sometimes quickly Quickly discriminate a high-contrast target from its background; an ambiguous target takes more time to see Contrast can come from the target's size, color, loudness, or smell

Perception (Cont.)
Perceptual process (cont.)
People attend more quickly to positively valued stimuli than to negatively valued stimuli Example: achievement-oriented employees notice announcements about promotion opportunities faster than an employee with less achievement motivation

Perception (Cont.)
Perceptual defense: shield self from negatively valued stimuli
Example: block out annoying sounds Organizational example: block some feedback from a supervisor or coworker when it is negative

Perception (Cont.)
Perceptual errors: mistakes in the perceptual process
Perceptual set
Beliefs about a target based on information about the target or previous experiences with it Information about the target from any source Beliefs act like instructions for processing stimuli from the target

Perception (Cont.)
Perceptual errors (cont.)
Stereotype: beliefs and perceived attributes about a target based on the targets group Examples
American university students: energetic and spontaneous Russian university students: orderly and obedient

Self-Perception: A View of Self

Self-perception: process by which people develop a view of themselves Develops from social interaction within different groups, including groups encountered on the Internet Self-perception has three parts: selfconcept, self-esteem, self-presentation

Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.)

Self-concept:
Set of beliefs people have about themselves View people hold of their personal qualities and attributes Factors affecting a person's self-concept
Observations of behavior Recall of past significant events Effect of the surrounding social context

Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.)

Self-concept (cont.)
Observations of behavior
People see their behavior, and their situation, in the same way they see the behavior of other people Person believes the behavior occurred voluntarily: concludes the behavior happened because of some personal quality or attribute

Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.)

Self-concept (cont.)
Observations of behavior (cont.)
People learn about themselves by comparing themselves to other people with similar qualities Example: you may want to assess your abilities to hold a supervisory position. You compare yourself to people with backgrounds similar to yours who have had recent promotions

Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.)

Self-concept (cont.)
Recall of past significant events and effect of the surrounding social context
Recall events important in their lives; not error free Tend to recall events they attribute to themselves and not to a situation or other people Often overestimate their role in past events Place more weight on the effects of their behavior and less on the surrounding situation or other people

Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.)

Self-esteem
Emotional dimension of self-perception Positive and negative judgments people have of themselves People with low self-esteem tend to be unsuccessful; do not adapt well to stressful events Those with high self-esteem have the opposite experiences

Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.)

Self-awareness
People differ in degree of self-awareness Two forms
Private self-consciousness: behave according to attend to inner feelings and standards Public self-consciousness: behave according to social standard correct for the situation

Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.)

Self-presentation
Behavioral strategies people use to affect how others see them How they think about themselves Goals of self-presentation
Affect other people's impressions to win their approval Increase the person's influence in a situation Ensure that others have an accurate impression of the person

Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.)

Self-presentation (cont.)
Highly conscious of public image: change behavior from situation to situation. Readily conform to situational norms People who want others to perceive them in a particular way behave consistently in different situations. They act in ways they perceive as true to themselves with little regard for the norms of the situation

Social Perception: A View of Others

Social perception: process by which people come to know and understand each other Forming impression of a person: perceiver first observes the person, the situation, and the person's behavior

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Form a quick impression by making a snap judgment about that person, or Make attributions and integrate the attributions to form a final impression Confirmation biases lead the perceiver to hold tenaciously to it

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Elements of social perception
Three sets of clues help form the impression of another person
Person Situation surrounding the person Observed behavior of the person

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Elements of social perception (cont.)
Developing first impressions
Use different physical aspects of the person: height, weight, hair color, eyeglasses Stereotypes based on physical features
Thin men: tense, suspicious, stubborn Blond women: fun loving Neatly dressed people: responsible

Stereotypes result from attributing qualities to people based on previously formed perceptions

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Elements of social perception (cont.)
Preconceptions about the situations in which we see the behavior of other people Develop from experience with the same or similar situations Situation raises expectations about behavior the situation should cause Example: when two people are introduced, we expect both parties to acknowledge the other and probably to shake hands

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Attribution processes
People use attribution processes to explain the causes of behavior they see in others Begins with a quick personal attribution followed by adjustment based on the characteristics of the situation

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Personal attribution
Characteristics of the person such as beliefs, disposition, or personality, and not the situation, caused the person's behavior Example: when you conclude that another student spends many hours completing a project because he likes to work hard or values hard work, you are making a personal attribution

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Situational attribution
Aspects of the situation, not qualities of the person, cause the person's behavior Example: a student worked hard because of the reward of a good grade

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Perceiver uses three types of information when forming an attribution
Consensus information Distinctiveness information Consistency information

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Consensus information
Observe other people in the same or a similar situation
If other people show the same behavior as the target person, the situation caused the behavior If other people behave differently from the target person, the person caused the behavior

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Distinctiveness information
Observe the target person in a different situation
If the response is different in the new situation, the situation caused the behavior If the response is the same, the person caused the behavior

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Consistency information
Observe the target person in a similar situation, but at a different time
High consistency: same behavior at both times Low consistency: different behavior at both times

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Combine consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency information to form attribution
Personal attribution: behavior high in consistency; low in consensus and distinctiveness Situational attribution: behavior high in consensus and distinctiveness; low in consistency

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Fundamental attribution error
Observer underestimates situation as cause of behavior; overestimates the as cause Explaining their behavior: tend to ascribe causes to the situation, not to personal qualities Explaining others behavior: tend to ascribe its causes to personal qualities, not the situation

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

False consensus
Overestimate the degree to which others agree with the person's view Reinforces the view the perceiver has of another person

Social Perception: A View of Others (Cont.)

Integration of attributions to form final impression: disposition of perceiver
Effects of recent experiences: positive or negative event just before meeting someone for the first time can affect the impression of the person Mood at time of first meeting:
Positive impressions in a good mood Negative impressions in a bad mood

Attitudes
An attitude is a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object Attitude object: physical objects, issues, ideas, events, people, places

Attitudes (Cont.)
Parts of an attitude
Cognitive: perceptions and beliefs about an attitude object Affective: feelings about an attitude object Behavioral intentions: how the person wants to behave and what a person says about an attitude object

Attitudes (Cont.)
Common work attitudes
Organizational commitment Satisfaction Job involvement

Play a role in employee turnover

Attitudes (Cont.)
Some connection between attitudes and behavior, although not strong
People with strong attitudes about an object will likely behave in accord with their attitude Strong positive attitudes about Macintosh computers leads to buying one Ardent followers of Jesse Jackson will likely vote for him

Attitudes (Cont.)
Attitude formation: affected by the persons beliefs about an object and the amount and type of information the person has about the object
Perceives positive attributes: develops positive attitude Perceives negative attributes: develops negative attitude

Attitudes (Cont.)
Attitude formation (cont.)
Family upbringing Peer groups Work groups General social experiences

Attitudes (Cont.)
Attitude change
Something persuades the person to shift his or her attitudes (persuasive communication) Norms of a social group can affect a persons attitude (social norms) Person becomes uncomfortable with some aspects of her or his beliefs (cognitive dissonance)

Attitudes (Cont.)
Persuasive communication
Advertising Tries to change cognitive part of attitude Assumes affective part will also change Attitude change process
Win targets attention Understand message Accept the influence Remember the message

Attitudes (Cont.)
Social influence on attitudes
People are embedded in social groups Feel pressures to conform to norms If person values membership in group, likely will align attitudes with the group norms

Attitudes (Cont.)
Cognitive dissonance
Hold multiple beliefs or cognitions about an attitude object Feel tension when discrepancies develop Motivated to reduce the tension Change one or more cognitions Other parts of attitude also change

Personality
Set of traits, characteristics, and predispositions of a person Usually matures and stabilizes by about age 30 Affects how a person adjusts to different environments

Personality Theories
Cognitive theory: people develop their thinking patterns as their life unfolds Learning theories: behavior patterns develop from the social environment Biological theories: personality as genetically inherited

Personality Theories (Cont.)

Cognitive theory
Develop thinking patterns as life unfolds Affects how the person interprets and internalizes life's events Cognitive development stages
Reflexive behavior of infant More complex modes of perception and interpretation of events

Neither driven by instincts nor unwittingly shaped by environmental influences

Personality Theories (Cont.)

Learning theories
Learn behavior from social interaction with other people Young child: early family socialization Continuously learn from social environment: stable behavior forms the personality Uniqueness of each personality follows from variability in social experiences

Personality Theories (Cont.)

Biological theories
Ethological theory
Develop common characteristics as a result of evolution Behavioral characteristics that have helped survival over generations become inborn characteristics

Personality Theories (Cont.)

Biological theories (cont.)
Behavior genetics
Individual's unique gene structure affects personality development Personality develops from interactions between a person's genetic structure and social environment

The Big-Five Personality Dimensions

Extroversion
High: talkative, sociable Low: reserved, introverted

Emotional stability
High: calm, relaxed Low: worried, depressed

Agreeableness
High: cooperative, tolerant Low: rude, cold

The Big-Five Personality Dimensions (Cont.)

Conscientiousness
High: dependable, thorough Low: sloppy, careless

Openness to experience
High: curious, intelligent Low: simple, conventional
Assess yourself on each dimension

Personality Types
Locus of control: people control the consequences of their actions or are controlled by external factors
External control: luck, fate, or powerful external forces control ones destiny Internal control: believe they control what happens to them
Assess yourself against each type.

Personality Types (Cont.)

Machiavellianism
Holds cynical views of other people's motives Places little value on honesty Approaches the world with manipulative intent Maintains distance between self and others Emotionally detached from other people Suspicious interpersonal orientation can contribute to high interpersonal conflict

Personality Types (Cont.)

Machiavellianism (cont.)
Focus on personal goals, even if reaching them requires unethical behavior Suspicious orientation leads to view of organizational world as a web of political processes

Personality Types (Cont.)

Type A personality: a keen sense of time urgency, focuses excessively on achievement, aggressive Type B personality: strong self-esteem, even tempered, no sense of time urgency
Type A: significant risk factor for coronary heart disease.

Personality Types (Cont.)

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Popular personality assessment device Four bi-polar dimensions
Extroverted (E) - introverted (I) Sensing (S) - intuitive (I) Thinking (T) - feeling (F) Perceiving (P) - judging (J)

Assigns people to one of sixteen types based on these dimensions

Personality Types (Cont.)

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (cont.)
Extroverts look outward; introverts turn inward Sensers use data; intuitives use hunches Thinkers are objective; feelers are subjective Perceivers are flexible; judgers want closure ESTJ type: extroverted, sensing, thinking, and judging

International Aspects of Perception, Attitudes, and Personality

Culturally based stereotypes
Swiss: punctual Germans: task-oriented Americans: energetic People who hold these stereotypes experience surprises when they meet people from these countries who do not fit the stereotypes

International Aspects of Perception, Attitudes, and Personality (Cont.)

Culturally based stereotypes (cont.)
Project aspects of own culture onto people and situations in a different culture Assumes that the new culture mirrors their own Example: Korean manager visiting Sweden assumes all women seated behind desks are secretaries Such behavior would be inappropriate and possibly dysfunctional in Sweden where many women hold management positions

International Aspects of Perception, Attitudes, and Personality (Cont.)

Attitudes about organizational design, management, and decision making:
U.S. managers: a hierarchical organizational design helps solve problems and guides the division of labor in the organization French and Italian managers: a hierarchical design lets people know authority relationships in the organization

International Aspects of Perception, Attitudes, and Personality (Cont.)

Attitudes (cont.)
Italian managers: bypassing a manager to reach a subordinate employee is insubordination Swedish and Austrian organizations: decentralized decision making Philippine and Indian organizations: centralized decision making
Conclusion: Organizations that cross national borders and draw managers from many different countries have high conflict potential.

International Aspects of Perception, Attitudes, and Personality (Cont.)

Personality characteristics
People in individualistic cultures (United States) have a stronger need for autonomy than people in group-oriented cultures (Japan) People in cultures that emphasize avoiding uncertainty (Belgium, Peru) have a stronger need for security than people in cultures that are less concerned about avoiding uncertainty (Singapore, Ireland)

Ethical Issues in Perception, Attitudes, and Personality

Stereotypes and workforce diversity
Can have inaccurate stereotypes about the ethics of people with different social, racial, and ethnic backgrounds These stereotypes can affect the opinions people develop about the ethical behavior of such people in the workplace

Ethical Issues in Perception, Attitudes, and Personality (Cont.)

Self-presentation
Deliberately managing self-presentations so decisions and behavior appear ethical Limited experimental evidence suggests one can favorably manage other people's impressions of their ethical attitudes

Ethical Issues in Perception, Attitudes, and Personality (Cont.)

Attribution and accountability
Individual responsibility is central to ethical behavior
Attribution of responsibility to a person: person behaved ethically or unethically Attribution of responsibility to the situation: individual not held accountable Example: observer believed the person had behaved unethically because of a directive

Errors in attribution: could conclude that he or she was not responsible for an unethical act

 Ethical attitudes

Ethical Issues in Perception, Attitudes, and Personality (Cont.)

Little reliable and valid information about ethical attitudes Some evidence points to the absence of a fixed set of ethical attitudes among managers Attitudes about ethics in organizations and decision making are situational and varying The morality of behavior and decisions is determined by their social context, not by abstract and absolute rules