Oscillators

Oscillators

Need of an Oscillator

An oscillator circuit is capable of producing ac voltage of desired frequency and waveshape. To test performance of electronic circuits, it is called signal generator. It can produce square, pulse, triangular, or sawtooth waveshape. High frequency oscillator are used in broadcasting. Microwave oven uses an oscillator. Used for induction heating and dielectric heating.
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Types of Oscillators

Sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal. An oscillator generating square wave or a pulse train is called multivibrator :
1. Bistable multivibrator (Flip-Flop Circuit). 2. Monostable multivibrator. 3. Astable multivibrator (Free-running).

Depending upon type of feedback, we have

1. Tuned Circuit (LC) oscillators. 2. RC oscillators, and 3. Crystal oscillators.
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In our discussion of negative feedback , we had assume that the output of the amplifier was feed backed in opposite phase to that of the input and that the feed back network did not introduce any phase shift in the feedback signal so that VF and VO remains in phase and thus VF and VS were out of phase . Consequently we can write VI= VS - VO and AF=A/(1+ A) Suppose that the feed back network introduces an phase shift of -1800 then VS and VF will be in phase so it will be equivalent to positive feedback.

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Using Positive Feedback

The gain with positive feedback is given as By making 1 A = 0, or A = 1, we get gain as infinity. This condition (A = 1) is known as Barkhausen Criterion of oscillations. It means you get output without any input !
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How is it Possible ?

Connecting point x to y, feedback voltage drives the amplifier.

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Building of oscillations

As soon as X get connected to Y, the amplifier amplify the noise signal , a part of which is feedback to the input. The frequency of oscillation is the point at which A=1. The amplitude of oscillation builds up and ultimately limited by the nonlinearities of the device which brings saturation in the output. Because of the nonlinearities in the output , the output contains the fundamental frequency and its harmonics.
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(1) If A < 1, we get decaying of damped oscillations.

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(2) If A > 1, we get growing oscillations.

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(3) If A = 1, we get sustained oscillations. In this case, the circuit supplies its own input signal.

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Wherefrom comes the starting voltage ?

Each resistor is a noise generator. The feedback network is a resonant circuit giving maximum feedback voltage at frequency f0, providing phase shift of 0 only at this frequency. The initial loop gain A > 1. The oscillations build up only at this frequency. After the desired output is reached, A reduces to unity.
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RC Oscillators

Two types :
1. RC Phase shift Oscillator.
2. Wein Bridge Oscillator.

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RC PSO( Phase Shift Oscillator)

The basic structure of a phase shift RC oscillator is shown here. It consist of a negative gain amplifier with three section of RC ladder network in the feedback

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The circuit will oscillate at a frequency at which phase shift of the RC network is 1800. because this will cause the total phase shift to 3600 or 00. The reason for using a three section RC network is that the three is minimum no of sections that is capable of producing a 1800 phase shift at a finite frequency. An RC network can produce a phase shift from 0 to 900. Thus in the three section, each section produces a phase shift of 600.
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By using network , we can derive the relationship between Feedback voltage and output VOUT/VIN= 1 - j6/RC 5/(RC)2 + j/(RC)3 putting Imaginary part equals zero we have -6/RC + 1/(RC)3 =0 solving we will get Frequency as given below

Putting this value of f ,we have feedback factor as =VIN/VOUT = -1/29

And the feedback factor is =1/29 and the A to be greater then 1 , so we must have gain greater then 29.
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RC Phase shift Oscillator

Here the amplifier is realized by n-FET. As we know that FET gives inverted output so already phase shift of 1800 so for satisfying barkhausen criteria phase shift of 1800 more needed by feedback network.
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Problem:

It is desired to design a PSO using a FET with gm=5x10-3A/V, rd=40K, and the feedback value R=10K. Determine the value of C for oscillator to operate at 1kHz and the value of RL for A>>29 to ensure oscillator action. Assume |A|=40.
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SOLUTION

Using the formula of we have C=6.5nF.

We know from small signal analysis that gain for the above circuit is A=-gm.RL where RL=RL||rd So 40=5x10-3.RL => RL =8K Since RL=RL||rd so we can solve for RL. RL=10K.

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THE WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

The wien bridge oscillator is the standard oscillator circuit in the range of 5Hz to 1 MHz. It is used in commercial audio generators and is usually preferred for other low frequency application. This oscillator circuit uses a resonator feedback circuit called a lead-leg circuit as shown below

Transfer function: V0/VIN=Z2/(Z1+Z2) Where Z2=1/(1+jRC) Z1=R+1/jRC

V0/VIN=jRC/[1-(RC)2+3jRC)] (eq.1)
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At low frequency series capacitor act as open circuit and hence there is no output . At very high frequency , the shunt capacitance looks shorted and hence there will not be any output. In between these limits , the output voltage reaches a maximum value of 1/3(Using eq.1 find maximum value). This frequency is the resonant frequency fr. At this frequency the phase angle between the input and output is equals 00. This is shown below

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The actual circuit using OPAMP is shown below

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Here the resistances R1 and R2 and capacitors C1 and C2 form the frequency adjustment elements while the resistances R3 and R4 form part of the feedback path. The OPAMP output is connected as the bridge input at point a and c. The bridge circuit output at point a and d is the input to the OPAMP. Using feedback concept and barkhausen criteria we have the frequency of oscillation a given below

By using same value of capacitors and resistors we can have the following expression for frequency (using eq.1 put phase shift to be zero, ie real part in denominator should be zero)

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This analysis gives the feedback factor as 1/3 so gain must be at least greater the 3(barkhausen criteria) As we have gain for the circuit as
1 + R3/R4 = 3 so we have to take R3/R4=2 for oscillation to build up.
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Solution :

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Tuned Oscillator

Tuned oscillator employ tuned LC circuit and are favorite at high frequencies. Figure shown below is tuned oscillator and next fig shows its equivalent circuit of amplifier where A , represent the open loop gain of amplifier.

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Equivalent circuit:

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Note that the input is between terminals 1 and 3 and the output is between terminal 2 and 3. Here the load impedance is given by ZL=(Z1+Z3)||Z2= [(Z1+Z3).Z2]/(Z1+Z3 +Z2)

From equivalent circuit we have

VO/ZL= - (VO-A.Vi)/RO (applying KCL)

The feedback factor of the circuit

=VI/VO=Z1/(Z1+Z3)
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For oscillation to occur we must have

AL=-1

That will give us

AZ1ZL/[(Z3+Z1).(ZL +R0)]=-1
After putting the value of ZL we have the following expression

AZ1Z3 /[RO(Z1+Z2+Z3) +Z2(Z1+Z3)]=-1

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Assuming Z1, Z2 , Z3 are reactance of the following value Z1 = jX1 , Z2 = jX2 , Z3 = jX3 We can have the following AX1.X2=jRO(X1+X2+X3) - X2 (X1+X3) Since left hand side is real so equating right hand side imaginary part as zero (X1+X2+X3)= 0 This condition determines the frequency of oscillation and shows that all the reactance can not be of same type. It means if two of them are capacitor then third one will be inductor and if two of them are inductor then the third one will be capacitor.

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Equating the real part we have AX1.X2= - X2 (X1+X3) since (X1+X2+X3)= 0 ie (X1+X3)= -X2 So we have AX1.X2= - X2.(-X2) i.e A= X2/ X1 This gives indication that X2 and X1 must be of same type i.e either both of them will be capacitor or will be inductor.

Note: above equation of gain also indicates the minimum gain required for oscillation.
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Types of tuned oscillator

(1) (2)

There are two types of tuned oscillator COLPITS Oscillator HARTLEY Oscillator In Colpits oscillator we have X1 and X2 are capacitors and X3 is inductor. In Hartley oscillator we have X1 and X2 are inductor and X3 is capacitor.

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COLPITS OSCILLATOR
OPAMP based colpits oscillator

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Frequency of operation (X1+X2+X3)= 0 1/jC1 + 1/jC2+ jL =0 L= 1/C1 + 1/C2 =[1/C1+1/C2].1/

2=[1/C1+1/C2].1/L
Calculate the oscillation frequency for C2=750pF,C1=2500pF, and L=40 H sol: f0=1.048 MHz. gain of amplifier is A=X2/X1= C1/C2= C1/C2=250/75=10/3 Since amplifier gain is RF/R1=10/3 so taking R1=3K we have Rf=10K

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BJT BASED COLPIT OSCILLATOR

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A colpits oscillator is designed with C1=100pF, and L=42.2mH. The frequency of oscillation is 150Khz . Determine C2 and the minimum gain of the amplifier.

Since we have

2=[1/C1+1/C2].1/L Using the data given we can find the value of C2=36.4pF.

Gain of amplifier is A=C1/C2=100/36.4

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HARTLEY Oscillator

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 Using (X1+X2+X3)= 0 we have jL1 +jL2 +1/jC = 0 (L1 +L2) =1/C 2=1/[C.(L1 +L2)]

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Problem:
A Hartley oscillator is designed with a voltage gain of 100 and C=13.9pF. (1) Determine the inductances L1 and L2 for f0=950KHz. (2) if f0 raised to 2.05MHz , determine the value of capacitor C. SOL :Part 1: A=L2/L1=100 L=L1+L2=101L1 2=1/L.C ie L=2.014mH L1=2.01/101=19.9 H. L2=1.99mH. :part 2: L.C=1/2. assuming L=101.L1and using f=2.05MHz SOLVE FOR C =3pF

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Solution :

Note: here C1 and C2 is different from our assumption

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Crystal Oscillator

A piezoelectric crystal , usually quartz , has the property that if electrode are placed on its opposite faces and a potential is applied across them, the electric field so set up exert forces on bound charges in the crystal . As a result the crystal responds electromechanically i.e it vibrates. The resonant frequency fr and the Q of the crystal depends on the crystal depend upon its dimension, orientation of its surface and mechanical mounting. The resonant frequency of quartz crystal is extremely stable with respect to temperature change and aging.
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Fig shown below is symbol , circuit model and reactance as A function of frequency.

Cm (mounting capacitance) = 3.5 pF;

Cs = 0.0235 pF; L = 137 H; R = 15 k
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Series and Parallel Resonance

First, resonance occurs at fs for the series combination of L and Cs. Above fs the series branch LCsR has inductive reactance. It then resonates at fp , with Cm. For this parallel resonance, equivalent series capacitance is Cp.
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Normally, Cs is much smaller than Cm. Therefore, Cp is slightly less than Cs. Hence, the frequency fp is slightly greater than fs. The crystal is inductive only between the frequencies fs and fp. The frequency of oscillation must lie between these frequencies. Hence the stability.
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The fo is between 411 kHz and 412 kHz.

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