OVERVIEW

Page 10

Motors

Lights

Heaters

120Watt Bulb = 1 Amp X 120 Volts

Voltage, Current, Resistance

Volts=Current (I) x Resistance (R)

Current (I) = Volts x Resistance (R)

Current (I) = Volts x Resistance (R)

How Electricity Works

Operating an electric switch is like turning on a

water faucet. Behind the faucet or switch there must be a source of water or electricity with something to transport it, and with a force to make it flow. In the case of water the source is a pump, and the force to make it flow through the pipes is provided by the pump. For electricity, the source is the power generator. Current travels through electrical conductors (wires) and the force to make it flow, measured in volts, is provided by a generator.

Electrical Shock
Received when current passes through the body
You become part of the circuit

Severity of a shock depends on:

Path of current through the

body Amount of current flowing through the body Length of time the body is in the circuit

If Electrocution Occurs
Call for help DO NOT touch the victim or the conductor Shut off the current at the control box If the shutoff is not immediately available, use a

non-conducting material to free the victim If necessary and you know how, begin CPR when current is stopped In dealing with electricity, never exceed your expertise

Electrical Burns
Most common shock-

related, nonfatal injury Occurs when you touch electrical wiring or equipment that is improperly used or maintained Typically occurs on the hands Very serious injury that needs immediate attention

Controlling Electrical Hazards

Most electrical mishaps

are caused by a combination of three factors:

Unsafe equipment and/or

installation, Workplaces made unsafe by the environment Unsafe work practices

Clues that Electrical Hazards Exist

Tripped circuit breakers or blown fuses
Warm tools, wires, cords, connections, or

junction boxes
GFCI that shuts off a circuit
Worn or frayed insulation around wire or

connection

Overload Hazards
If too many devices are

plugged into a circuit, the current will heat the wires to a very high temperature, which may cause a fire
If the wire insulation melts, arcing may occur and cause

a fire in the area where the overload exists, even inside a wall

Preventing Electrical Hazards

Ways

of protecting workers and preventing electrical hazards are: Insulation Grounding Electrical protective devices (GFCI) Safe work practices

Insulation prior to Check insulation

using cables, tools, or equipment Remove from service any tools or equipment with damaged insulation

Cabinets, Boxes, and Fittings

Junction boxes, pull boxes

and fittings must have approved covers Unused openings in cabinets, boxes and fittings must be closed (no missing knockouts)

29 CFR 1910.305(b)(1) and (2)

Grounding
Grounding creates a low-

resistance path from a tool to the earth to disperse unwanted current When a short or lightning occurs, energy flows to the ground, protecting you from electrical shock, injury and death

Improper Grounding
Tools plugged into

improperly grounded circuits may become energized

Broken wire or plug on extension cord Some of the most

frequently violated OSHA standards

Hand-Held Electric Tools

Hand-held electric tools pose a

potential danger because they make continuous contact with the hand

To protect you from shock, burns, and electrocution, tools must:

Have a three-wire cord with ground

and be plugged into a grounded receptacle, or Be double insulated

Panel Boxes
Panel boxes are used to house circuit breakers that

block or isolate energy

Ensure panel boxes remain clear Label all circuits for what they control Label panel boxes for what they control Replace circuit breakers with blanks when not in use

CHAPTER 2
UNDERSTANDING ELECTICITY

Basic Electronics (Outline)

The Elements of Electricity Volt-Ohm-Meter Basics (Measuring Electricity) Circuit Diagrams Basics (Electronic Roadmaps) The Resistor Ohms Law The Capacitor The Inductor The Diode The Transistor (Electronic Valve)

The Elements of Electricity

Voltage Current Resistance Types of Current: AC and DC Circuits

Closed Open Short

Voltage, Current, and Resistance

Water flowing through a hose is a good way to imagine electricity

Water is like Electrons in a wire (flowing electrons are called Current) Pressure is the force pushing water through a hose Voltage is the force pushing electrons through a wire Friction against the holes walls slows the flow of water Resistance is an impediment that slows the flow of electrons

Forms of Current
There are 2 types of current
The form is determined by the directions the current flows through

a conductor

Direct Current (DC)

Flows in only one direction from negative toward positive pole of

source

Alternating Current (AC)

Flows back and forth because the poles of the source alternate

between positive and negative

AC Current Vocabulary

Time Period of One Cycle

Circuits
A circuit is a path for current to flow
Three basic kinds of circuits Open the path is broken and interrupts current flow Closed the path is complete and current flows were it is intended Short an unintended low resistance path that divers current

Circuits

Volt-Ohm-Meter (VOM) Basics

(Measuring Electricity)

Common Functions
Voltage Semi-conductor

AC/DC Ranges Current AC/DC Ranges Resistance (DC only) Ranges Continuity

Performance Transistors Diodes Capacitance

Volt-Ohm-Meter Basics Meter Reading Digits

DC Voltage Scales

AC Voltage Scales

Function Selection

Jacks

Volt-Ohm-Meter Basics
DC Current (low) DC Current (high)

Resistance

Transistor Checker

Diode Checker

Measuring Current

Negative Source

Positive Source

Measuring Resistance
When the VOM is used to measure resistance, what actually is measured is a small current applied to the component. There are 5 ranges. An out of resistance reading will be indicated by a single 1 digit. Remember k means multiply the reading by 1000. Operating voltages should be removed from the component under test or you could damage the VOM at worst, or the reading could be in error at best.

Circuit Diagrams Basics

(Electronic Roadmaps)

Component Representations
Resistor Ground Capacitor

Inductor
Diode Transistor Integrated circuit

Special

Project T.V. Remote Decoder Circuit

Gnd

Out

In

Circuit Diagrams Basics

78L05
+9V

1N4001

SW6 .1uF +5 Volts to Relays 330

Vcc GP5 GP4 GP3

Gnd GP0 GP1 GP2

8 7 6 5 Vcc Gnd Out

12F675

4.7K

2 3 4

SW5 N.O.

SW4
+5V

SW3
+5V +5V

SW2
+5V

SW1

K4

330 LED

K3

330 LED

330 LED

K2

330 LED

K1

2N3904

4.7K

2N3904

4.7K

4.7K

2N3904

4.7K

2N3904

Note: Internal pull-up resistors are used on 12F265 pins GP0, GP1, GP2, GP4, GP5 External pull-up resistor required on GP3 Protection diodes are internal to K1 - K4 Switchs SW1 - SW4 are internal to K1 - K4

Resistor

Fixed

Variable

Ground

Earth

Chassis

Capacitor

Fixed

Variable

Inductor

Air Core

Iron Core

Variable

Diode

General Purpose

Zener

Light Emitting (LED)

Transistor

NPN

PNP

FET

Integrated circuit
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10 9 8

Special
V
Battery Speaker Voltmeter

A
Fuse Antenna Ampmeter

The Resistor
Resistance defined Resistance values Ohms color code interpretation Power dissipation Resistors in circuits Series Parallel Combination

Resistance Defined
Resistance is the impediment to the flow of electrons

through a conductor
(friction to moving electrons) Where theres friction, there is heat generated All materials exhibit some resistance, even the best of

conductors

Unit measured in Ohm(s) From 1/10 of Ohms to millions of Ohms

Resistor Types
Fixed Value
Variable value Composite resistive material Wire-wound Two parameters associated with resistors Resistance value in Ohms Power handling capabilities in watts

All 1000 Ohm Resistors

1/8

20

Resistor Types

Resistor Types

Inside a Resistor

Reading Resistor Color Codes

Turn resistor so gold, silver band, or space is at right Note the color of the two left hand color bands The left most band is the left hand value digit The next band to the right is the second value digit Note the color of the third band from the left, this is the multiplier 6. Multiply the 2 value digits by the multiplier
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Reading Resistor Color Codes

Reading Resistor Color Codes (Practice Problems)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Orange, orange, red? Yellow, violet, orange? Brown, black, brown? Brown, black, green? Red, red, red? Blue, gray, orange? Orange, white, orange?

Power dissipation
Resistance generates heat and the component must be

able to dissipate this heat to prevent damage. Physical size (the surface area available to dissipate heat) is a good indicator of how much heat (power) a resistor can handle Measured in watts Common values , , 1, 5, 10 etc.

Resistors in Circuits Series

Looking at the current

path, if there is only one path, the components are in series.

Resistors in Circuits Series

RE R1 R2 Rn

Resistors in Circuits Series

R1 100 100K 4.7K 330 R2 100 10K 4.7K 4.7K Calculate Measured d RE RE

Resistors in Circuits Parallel

If there is more than

one way for the current to complete its path, the circuit is a parallel circuit.

Resistors in Circuits Parallel

R1R2 1 RE 1 1 1 R1 R2 R1 R2 Rn

Resistors in Circuits Parallel

R1 100 100K 4.7K 330 R2 100 10K 10K 4.7K Calculate Measured d RE RE

Resistors in Circuits Parallel Challenge

Make a circuit with 3 resistors in parallel, calculate

the equivalent resistance then measure it.

R1 = 330 ohm R2 = 10 k-ohm R3 = 4.7 k-ohm

Resistors in Circuits Mixed

If the path for the current

in a portion of the circuit is a single path, and in another portion of the circuit has multiple routes, the circuit is a mix of series and parallel.

Series

Parallel

Series

Resistors in Circuits Mixed

R1 330

Take the parallel

segment of the circuit and calculate the equivalent resistance:

R2 4.7K

R3 2.2K

R2 R3 RE R2 R3

Resistors in Circuits Mixed

R1 330

We now can look at the

simplified circuit as shown here. The parallel resistors have been replaced by a single resistor with a value of 1498 ohms. Calculate the resistance of this series circuit:

R1 RE

RE=1498

Resistors in Circuits Mixed

In this problem, divide

R1

the problem into sections, solve each section and then combine them all back into the whole. R1 = 330 R2 = 1K R3 = 2.2K R4 = 4.7K

R2
Series

R4

R3

Parallel

Series

Resistors in Circuits Mixed

Looking at this portion
R2

of the circuit, the resistors are in series.

R2 = 1k-ohm R3 = 2.2 k-ohm

R3

RE R2 R3

Resistors in Circuits Mixed

Substituting the
R1

equivalent resistance just calculated, the circuit is simplified to this.

R1 = 330 ohm R4 = 4.7 k-ohm RE = 3.2 k-ohm

RE

R4

Now look at the parallel

resistors RE and R4.

Resistors in Circuits Mixed

Using the parallel

formula for:
RE = 3.2 k-ohm
R4 = 4.7 k-ohm

RE

R4

RE R4 RT RE R4

Resistors in Circuits Mixed

The final calculations
R1

involve R1 and the new RTotal from the previous parallel calculation.
R1 = 330 RE = 1.9K

RTotal

RTotal R1 RE

Resistors in Circuits Mixed

R1 = 330 ohm RTotal = 2,230

R2 = 1 k-ohm

=
R4 = 4.7 k-ohm

R3 = 2.2 k-ohm

Ohms Law
The mathematical relationship E=I*R Doing the math
Kirchhoffs law A way to predict circuit behavior

It all adds up Nothing is lost

Ohms Law
There is a mathematical

E I *R
E R I

relationship between the three elements of electricity. That relationship is Ohms law.
E = volts R = resistance in ohms I = current in amps

E I R

Ohms Law

Ohms Law
This is the basic circuit

that you will use for the following exercises. The VOM will be moved to measure voltage,resistance and current.

Ohms Law Exercise 1

Wire this circuit using a

100 ohm resistor. Without power applied measure the resistance of the resistor. Connect the 9 volt battery and measure the voltage across the resistor. Record your data.

Ohms Law Exercise 1

Using the voltage and

resistance data in Ohms law, calculate the anticipated current. Example data results in a current of .09 amps or 90 milliamps

E I R

8.8volts .09amps 98.1ohms

Ohms Law Exercise 1

Insert the VOM into the

circuit as indicated in this diagram. Using the appropriate current range, measure the actual current in the circuit. How does the measured current compare to your prediction using Ohms law?

Ohms Law In Practice

The next series of exercises will put Ohms Law to use to illustrate some principles of basic electronics.
As in the previous exercise you will build the circuits and insert the VOM into the circuit in the appropriate way to make current and voltage measurements.

Throughout the exercise record your data so that you can compare it to calculations.

Ohms Law In Practice

Build up the illustrated

circuit.
R1 = 1 k-ohm R2 = 1 k-ohm R3 = 2.2 k-ohm R4 = 300 ohm

R1

R2

R3

Measure the current

flowing through the circuit.

R4

Ohms Law In Practice

Now move the VOM to

the other side of the circuit and measure the current. The current should be the same as the previous measurement.

Ohms Law In Practice

Insert the VOM at the

indicated location and measure the current. There should be no surprise that the current is the same.

+
A

Ohms Law In Practice

Measure the voltage

across R1. Using Ohms law, calculate the voltage drop across a 1K ohm resistor at the current you measured Compare the result.

Ohms Law In Practice

In this next step, you will

insert the VOM in the circuit at two places illustrated at the right as #1 and #2. Record your current readings for both places. Add the currents and compare and contrast to the current measured entering the total circuit.

#1
A A

#2

Ohms Law In Practice

Using the current measured through #1 and the resistance value of R2, 1k ohms, calculate the voltage drop across the resistor.
Likewise do the same with the current measured through #2 and the resistance value of R3, 2.2k ohms. Compare and contrast these two voltage values

Ohms Law In Practice

Measure the voltage

across the parallel resistors and record your answer. Compare and contrast the voltage measured to the voltage drop calculated.

Ohms Law In Practice

In the next step, insert

the VOM into the circuit as illustrated, measure and record the current. Compare and contrast the current measured to the total current measured in a previous step. Were there any surprises?

Ohms Law In Practice

Using the current you

just measured and the resistance of R4 (330 ohms), calculate what the voltage drop across R4 should be. Insert the VOM into the circuit as illustrated and measure the voltage. Compare and contrast the measured and calculated voltages.

Ohms Law In Practice

There is one final

measurement to complete this portion of the exercise. Insert the VOM as indicated. Recall the 3 voltages measured previously; across R1, R2 and R3, and across R4. Add these three voltages together and then compare and contrast the result with the total voltage just measured.

Ohms Law In Practice

What you observed was: The sum of the individual currents entering a node was equal to the total current leaving a node . The sum of the voltage drops was equal to the total voltage across the circuit. This is Kirchhoffs law and is very useful in the study

of electronic circuits. You also noted that Ohms law applied throughout the circuit.

The Capacitor
Capacitance defined
Physical construction
Types How construction affects

Capacitance values
Numbering system

Capacitors in circuits
Series

values Power ratings

Parallel
Mixed

Capacitor performance

with AC and DC currents

The Capacitor

The Capacitor Defined

A device that stores energy in

electric field. Two conductive plates separated by a non conductive material. Electrons accumulate on one plate forcing electrons away from the other plate leaving a net positive charge. Think of a capacitor as very small, temporary storage battery.

The Capacitor Physical Construction

Capacitors are rated by:
Amount of charge that can

be held. The voltage handling capabilities. Insulating material between plates.

The Capacitor Ability to Hold a Charge

Ability to hold a charge

depends on:
Conductive plate surface

area. Space between plates. Material between plates.

Charging a Capacitor

Charging a Capacitor
In the following activity you will

charge a capacitor by connecting a power source (9 volt battery) to a capacitor. You will be using an electrolytic capacitor, a capacitor that uses polarity sensitive insulating material between the conductive plates to increase charge capability in a small physical package. Notice the component has polarity identification + or -.

Charging a Capacitor
Touch the two leads of the capacitor together.
This short circuits the capacitor to make sure there is

no residual charge left in the capacitor. Using your VOM, measure the voltage across the leads of the capacitor

Charging a Capacitor
Wire up the illustrated circuit

and charge the capacitor. Power will only have to be applied for a moment to fully charge the capacitor. Quickly remove the capacitor from the circuit and touch the VOM probes to the capacitor leads to measure the voltage. Carefully observe the voltage reading over time until the voltage is at a very low level (down to zero volts).

Discharging a Capacitor

The Capacitor Behavior in DC

When connected to a DC source, the capacitor

charges and holds the charge as long as the DC voltage is applied. The capacitor essentially blocks DC current from passing through.

The Capacitor Behavior in AC When AC voltage is applied, during one half of the cycle the capacitor accepts a charge in one direction. During the next half of the cycle, the capacitor is discharged then recharged in the reverse direction. During the next half cycle the pattern reverses. It acts as if AC current passes through a capacitor

The Capacitor Behavior

A capacitor blocks the passage of DC current A capacitor passes AC current

The Capacitor Capacitance Value

The unit of capacitance is the farad.
A single farad is a huge amount of capacitance. Most electronic devices use capacitors that are a very tiny

fraction of a farad.

Common capacitance ranges are:

Micro Nano Pico

10-6 10-9 10-12

n
p

The Capacitor Capacitance Value

Capacitor identification

depends on the capacitor type. Could be color bands, dots, or numbers. Wise to keep capacitors organized and identified to prevent a lot of work trying to re-identify the values.

Capacitors in Circuits
Three physical factors

+ Charged plates far apart

affect capacitance values.

Plate spacing Plate surface area Dielectric material

In series, plates are far

apart making capacitance less

C1C2 CE C1 C2

Capacitors in Circuits
In parallel, the surface
+

area of the plates add up to be greater. This makes the total capacitance higher.
-

CE C1 C2

The Inductor
Inductance defined
Physical construction
How construction affects

values

Inductor performance

with AC and DC currents

The Inductor

1. 2.

There are two fundamental principles of electromagnetics:

Moving electrons create a magnetic field. Moving or changing magnetic fields cause electrons to move.

An inductor is a coil of wire through which electrons move, and energy is stored in the resulting magnetic field.

The Inductor
Like capacitors, inductors

temporarily store energy. Unlike capacitors:

Inductors store energy in a

magnetic field, not an electric field. When the source of electrons is removed, the magnetic field collapses immediately.

The Inductor
Inductors are simply

coils of wire.
Can be air wound (just air in

the middle of the coil) Can be wound around a permeable material (material that concentrates magnetic fields) Can be wound around a circular form (toroid)

The Inductor
Inductance is measured in Henry(s).
A Henry is a measure of the intensity of the magnetic

field that is produced. Typical inductor values used in electronics are in the range of millihenry (1/1000 Henry) and microhenry (1/1,000,000 Henry)

The Inductor
The amount of

inductance is influenced by a number of factors:

Number of coil turns. Diameter of coil. Spacing between turns. Size of the wire used. Type of material inside the

coil.

Inductor Performance With DC Currents

When a DC current is applied to an inductor, the increasing magnetic field opposes the current flow and the current flow is at a minimum. Finally, the magnetic field is at its maximum and the current flows to maintain the field. As soon as the current source is removed, the magnetic field begins to collapse and creates a rush of current in the other direction, sometimes at very high voltage.

Inductor Performance With AC Currents

When AC current is applied to an inductor, during the first half of the cycle, the magnetic field builds as if it were a DC current. During the next half of the cycle, the current is reversed and the magnetic field first has to decrease the reverse polarity in step with the changing current. These forces can work against each other resulting in a lower current flow.

The Inductor
Because the magnetic field

surrounding an inductor can cut across another inductor in close proximity, the changing magnetic field in one can cause current to flow in the other the basis of transformers

The Diode
The semi-conductor phenomena
Diode performance with AC and DC currents Diode types General purpose LED Zenier

The Diode The semi-conductor phenomena

Atoms in a metal allow a sea of electrons that are relatively free to move about. Semiconducting materials like Silicon and Germanium have fewer free electrons. Impurities added to semiconductor material can either add free electrons or create an absence of free electrons (holes).

The Diode The semi-conductor phenomena

Consider the bar of silicon at the right.

One side of the bar is doped with negative material (excess electrons).

The cathode. The other side is doped with positive material (excess holes). The anode In between is a no mans land called the P-N Junction.

The Diode The semi-conductor phenomena

Consider now applying a negative voltage to the anode

and positive voltage to the cathode. The electrons are attracted away from the junction. This diode is reverse biased meaning no current will flow.

The Diode The semi-conductor phenomena

Consider now applying a positive voltage to the anode and a negative voltage to the cathode. The electrons are forced to the junction. This diode is forward biased meaning current will flow.

The Diode with AC Current

If AC is applied to a diode:
During one half of the cycle the diode is forward biased and

current flows. During the other half of the cycle, the diode is reversed biased and current stops.

This is the process of rectification, allowing current to flow in only one direction.

This is used to convert AC into pulsating DC.

The Diode with AC Current

Output Pulsed DC Voltage

Diode conducts Diode off

Input AC Voltage

The Light Emitting Diode

In normal diodes, when electrons combine with holes current flows and heat is produced.
With some materials, when electrons combine with holes, photons of light are emitted, this forms an LED. LEDs are generally used as indicators though they have the same properties as a regular diode.

The Light Emitting Diode

Build the illustrated circuit on

the proto board. The longer LED lead is the anode (positive end). Observe the diode response Reverse the LED and observe what happens. The current limiting resistor not only limits the current but also controls LED brightness.

330

Zener Diode
A Zener diode is designed

through appropriate doping so that it conducts at a predetermined reverse voltage.

The diode begins to conduct and

9V

4.7V

then maintains that predetermined voltage

The over-voltage and

associated current must be dissipated by the diode as heat

The Transistor
(Electronic Valves)

How they works, an

inside look Basic types

NPN PNP

The basic transistor

circuits
Switch
Amplifier

The Transistor
collector

base

emitter

The Transistor
collector N

e-

conducting P N emitter

base

e-

forward bias e-

The base-emitter current controls the collector-base current

The Transistor
non-conducting collector N P
base

emitter

e-

reverse bias e-

The Transistor
There are two basic types of

transistors depending of the arrangement of the material.

PNP NPN

PNP

An easy phrase to help

remember the appropriate symbol is to look at the arrow.

PNP pointing in proudly. NPN not pointing in.

The only operational difference

is the source polarity.

NPN

CHAPTER 3
ELECTRICAL HARM

Introduction
There are four main types of electrical injuries: Electrocution (death due to electrical shock) Electrical shock Burns Falls

189

Electrical Shock
Received when current passes through the body
Severity of the shock depends on:
Path of current through the body

Amount of current flowing

through the body Length of time the body is in the circuit LOW VOLTAGE DOES NOT MEAN LOW HAZARD

190

Dangers of Electrical Shock

Currents greater than 75 mA* can

cause ventricular fibrillation (rapid, ineffective heartbeat) Will cause death in a few minutes unless a defibrillator is used 75 mA is not much current a small power drill uses 30 times as much

Defibrillator in use

* mA = milliampere = 1/1,000 of an ampere

191

How is an electrical shock received?

When two wires have different potential differences (voltages), current will flow if they are connected together In most household wiring, the black wires are at

110 volts relative to ground The white wires are at zero volts because they are connected to ground If you come into contact with an energized (live) black wire, and you are also in contact with the white grounded wire, current will pass through your body and YOU WILL RECEIVE A SHOCK

192

How is an electrical shock received?

(contd)
If you are in contact with an energized wire or any

energized electrical component, and also with any grounded object, YOU WILL RECEIVE A SHOCK You can even receive a shock when you are not in contact with a ground
If you contact both wires of a 240-volt cable, YOU

WILL RECEIVE A SHOCK and possibly be electrocuted

193

Electrical Burns
Most common shock-related,

nonfatal injury Occurs when you touch electrical wiring or equipment that is improperly used or maintained Typically occurs on the hands Very serious injury that needs immediate attention

194

Falls
Electric shock can also cause

indirect or secondary injuries Workers in elevated locations who experience a shock can fall, resulting in serious injury or death

195

Inadequate Wiring Hazards

A hazard exists when a conductor is

too small to safely carry the current Example: using a portable tool with an extension cord that has a wire too small for the tool The tool will draw more current than the cord can handle, causing overheating and a possible fire without tripping the circuit breaker The circuit breaker could be the right size for the circuit but not for the smaller-wire extension cord

Wire Gauge

WIRE

Wire gauge measures wires ranging in size from number 36 to 0 American wire gauge (AWG)

196

Overload Hazards
If too many devices are

plugged into a circuit, the current will heat the wires to a very high temperature, which may cause a fire If the wire insulation melts, arcing may occur and cause a fire in the area where the overload exists, even inside a wall

197

Electrical Protective Devices

These devices shut off electricity flow in the event

of an overload or ground-fault in the circuit Include fuses, circuit breakers, and ground-fault circuit-interrupters (GFCIs) Fuses and circuit breakers are overcurrent devices
When there is too much current:

Fuses melt Circuit breakers trip open

198

Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupter

This device protects you from

dangerous shock The GFCI detects a difference in current between the black and white circuit wires (This could happen when electrical equipment is not working correctly, causing current leakage known as a ground fault.) If a ground fault is detected, the GFCI can shut off electricity flow in as little as 1/40 of a second, protecting you from a dangerous shock
199

Grounding Hazards
Some of the most frequently violated OSHA standards

Metal parts of an electrical wiring system that we touch (switch plates, ceiling light fixtures, conduit, etc.) should be at zero volts relative to ground
Housings of motors, appliances or tools that are plugged

into improperly grounded circuits may become energized If you come into contact with an improperly grounded electrical device, YOU WILL BE SHOCKED

200

Overhead Powerline Hazards

Most people dont realize that

overhead powerlines are usually not insulated Powerline workers need special training and personal protective equipment (PPE) to work safely Do not use metal ladders instead, use fiberglass ladders Beware of powerlines when you work with ladders and scaffolding

201

Some Examples of OSHA Electrical Requirements . . . .

202

Grounding Path
The path to ground from

circuits, equipment, and enclosures must be permanent and continuous Violation shown here is an extension cord with a missing grounding prong

203

Hand-Held Electric Tools

Hand-held electric tools pose a

potential danger because they make continuous good contact with the hand To protect you from shock, burns, and electrocution, tools must:
Have a three-wire cord with ground

and be plugged into a grounded receptacle, or Be double insulated, or Be powered by a low-voltage isolation transformer

204

Guarding of Live Parts

Must guard live parts of electric

equipment operating at 50 volts or more against accidental contact by: Approved cabinets/enclosures, or Location or permanent partitions making them accessible only to qualified persons, or Elevation of 8 ft. or more above the floor or working surface Mark entrances to guarded locations with conspicuous warning signs

205

Guarding of Live Parts

Must enclose or guard electric

equipment in locations where it would be exposed to physical damage Violation shown here is physical damage to conduit

206

Cabinets, Boxes, and Fittings

Junction boxes, pull boxes and fittings must have approved covers
Unused openings in cabinets,

boxes and fittings must be closed (no missing knockouts) Photo shows violations of these two requirements

207

Use of Flexible Cords

More vulnerable than fixed wiring Do not use if one of the recognized wiring

methods can be used instead Flexible cords can be damaged by: Aging
Door or window edges

Staples or fastenings
Abrasion from adjacent materials Activities in the area Improper use of flexible cords can cause shocks, burns or fire

208

Permissible Uses of Flexible Cords

Examples

Pendant, or Fixture Wiring

Portable lamps, tools or appliances

Stationary equipmentto facilitate interchange

209

Prohibited Uses of Flexible Cords

Examples

Substitute for fixed wiring

Run through walls, ceilings, floors, doors, or windows

Concealed behind or attached to building surfaces

210

Clues that Electrical Hazards Exist

Tripped circuit breakers or blown fuses
Warm tools, wires, cords, connections, or junction

boxes GFCI that shuts off a circuit Worn or frayed insulation around wire or connection

211

Training
Train employees working with electric equipment in safe work practices, including: Deenergizing electric equipment before inspecting or making repairs Using electric tools that are in good repair Using good judgment when working near energized lines Using appropriate protective equipment

212

Summary
Hazards Inadequate wiring Exposed electrical parts Wires with bad insulation Ungrounded electrical systems and tools Overloaded circuits Damaged power tools and equipment Using the wrong PPE and tools Overhead powerlines All hazards are made worse in wet conditions Protective Measures Proper grounding Using GFCIs Using fuses and circuit breakers Guarding live parts Proper use of flexible cords Training

213

CHAPTER 4
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

Electrical Hazards
Bare conductors
Insulation failure Equipment failure Static electricity Heating and overheating Electrical explosions

Bare Conductors
Live overhead wires most common
Working on rooftops Repair of electrical systems Capacitors

Insulation Failure
Heat and elevated temperatures
Moisture and humidity Mechanical damage Rodents, fungi Chemical

incompatibility

Equipment Failure
Older portable tools
Energized housing Broken connections Wrongly replaced internal wiring Lack of grounding plug

Static Electricity
Occurs when two different materials contact and then

separate High voltage, low current Flammable liquids Lightning

Heating and Overheating

Use of electricity results in heat
Can cause accidental fires Burns out equipment Equipment failure and ignition Hot surfaces

Electrical Explosions
Rapid overheating from overcurrents
Caused by short circuits, power surges, or lightning Heated contaminants in oil-filled

breakers or transformers Capacitors subject to wrong polarity

Its Your Job to Know!

Know the hazards of electricity Know the equipment Use Safe Work Practices Inspect your PPE before each use Dont work on energized circuits

without permission

222

Safety-Related Work Practices

To protect workers from electrical shock:
Use barriers and guards to prevent passage

through areas of exposed energized equipment Pre-plan work, post hazard warnings and use protective measures Keep working spaces and walkways clear of cords

223

An employee working on a roof made contact with the service entrance riser into the home and was electrocuted

224

Caution
Special Training is required for work on electrical

equipment. Such training is for Authorized Employees and it covers:

Safe Work Practices Isolation of Electrical Sources

Test Equipment
Tools & PPE Only Authorized Employees may conduct electrical work

225

Control Devices
Control circuit devices such as
push

buttons selector switches interlocks

may not be used as the sole means for de-energizing circuits or equipment.

226

Control Use GFCI (ground-fault circuit interrupter)

Protects you from shock

Detects difference in current

between the black and white wires If ground fault detected, GFCI shuts off electricity in 1/40th of a second Use GFCIs on all 120-volt, singlephase, 15- and 20-ampere receptacles, or have an assured equipment grounding conductor program.
227

ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Effects of Amount of AC Current
ma=1/1000th of an amp

3 ma- painful shock which cause indirect accidents 10ma- muscle contraction...no let go danger 30ma- lung paralysis- usually temporary 50ma- possible ventricular fibrillation (heart dysfunction, usually fatal) 100 ma- certain ventricular fibrillation, fatal 4 amps- heart paralysis, severe burns

228

How it works

229

Are these safe practices?

230

Lock & Tag

Lock & Tag all Sources
Place Lock & Tag on each disconnecting

means used to de-energize circuits

Attach lock to prevent operating the

disconnecting means
Place Tag with each lock
Note: Only the person who places the lock may remove it.

231

Lockout Devices

232

If a Lock cannot be applied

A tag used without a lock must be supplemented by at least one additional safety measure that provides a level of safety equal to that of a lock. Examples: Removal of an isolating circuit element such as a fuse Blocking of a controlling switch Opening of an extra disconnecting device.
233

Tagout
There many different kinds of tags and Lockout devices.

234

Release Stored Energy

Stored electric energy must be released before starting

work.

Discharge all Capacitors Short-Circuit & Ground all high

capacitance elements

235

 Verify System is Deenergized

controls to check that equipment cannot be restarted.

Is it Dead?
Operate the equipment

Use test equipment to test the circuits & electrical parts for voltage & current
236

Alerting others of hazards work Use barricades to prevent or limit access to

Use safety signs, safety symbols, or accident

areas with un-insulated energized conductors or circuit parts. prevention tags to warn others about electrical hazards which may endanger them. warning and protection from electrical hazards, an attendant shall be stationed to warn and protect employees.

If signs and barricades do not provide sufficient

237

Electrical Tools and Cords

238

Portable Electric Tools & Cords

Portable equipment must be handled in a manner which will not cause damage.
Flexible electric cords connected to

equipment may not be used for raising or lowering the equipment. Flexible cords may not be fastened with staples or otherwise hung in such a fashion as could damage the outer jacket or insulation.

239

Tools & Equipment equipment when Use insulated tools or handling

working near exposed energized conductors or circuit parts. Use fuse handling equipment to remove or install fuses when the fuse terminals are energized. Ropes and handlines used near exposed energized parts must be nonconductive.

240

Power Tool Requirements

Have a three-wire cord with ground

plugged into a grounded receptacle, or

Be double insulated, or Be powered by a low-voltage isolation

transformer

241

Preventing Electrical Hazards - Tools

Inspect tools before use
Use the right tool correctly Protect your tools Use double insulated tools

Double Insulated marking

242

Any problems?

243

Clues that Electrical Hazards Exist

Tripped circuit breakers or

blown fuses Warm tools, wires, cords, connections, or junction boxes GFCI that shuts off a circuit Worn or frayed insulation around wire or connection

244

Beware of Old Wiring

Removal of expansion tank (hot water). Old style knob electrical wiring. Victim contacted frayed wiring.

245

Wire Pulling

Avoid manual wire pulling and use a tugger or a handtool whenever possible Communication between the puller and feeder to coordinate movements will make the job easier and safer. Use lighter-weight tools.

246

Reducing Body Strains

CHANGE BODY POSITIONS. Working overhead, at floor level, or in cramped

spaces forces the body into awkward postures. To relieve muscle tension and improve circulation, change body positions, alternate tasks, and stretch throughout the day.

247

Summary
Electrical equipment must be: Listed and labeled Free from hazards Used in the proper manner

If you use electrical tools you must:

Be protected from electrical shock Use them in a comfortable position Be provided with necessary safety equipment

248

A tree trimmer was electrocuted when he touched an overhead electrical line while descending a palm tree

Always remember Its your life!

An employee was electrocuted while working on an A/C unit

249

CHAPTER 5
ELECTRICAL PROTECTION

Consequences of an Arc-Flash Incident

252

253

Mitigation of Electrical Hazards

Work De-Energized
Engineer Out the Hazard Follow Electrical Safe Work Practices Employ Lockout/Tagout of Hazardous Electrical Energy Sources Use Voltage Insulating PPE and Equipment Use PPE for Arc-Flash Protection Use Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters

FN000385/CR, Electrical Safety in the Workplace

254

 Electrical systems and equipment and all design, construction, installation, inspection, testing, and operational activities shall be in accordance with established electrical safety standards Electrical work activities at Fermilab are preferentially performed on de-energized circuits Implementation of Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) procedures is central to our Program

See a Problem? Tell Somebody!

255

What is Energized Work?

Any activity On or Near exposed energized

conductors where a real hazard exists from contact or equipment failure that can result in electric shock, arc flash burn or arc blast.

Working On - Coming in contact with live parts with the hands, feet, or other body parts, with tools, probes or with test equipment Working Near Inside the Limited Approach Boundary
256

Diagnostic Energized Work

Inspection, testing, voltage and/or current measurements, phase alignment, troubleshooting, circuit and signal tracing, thermal imaging, etc. that are performed on or near exposed live parts within the Limited Approach Boundary
Verification Associated with LOTO

Performed by Qualified Persons Utilizing Appropriately Rated Measurement Equipment and Required PPE.
257

Manipulative Energized Work

Making, tightening or breaking of energized electrical connections or the replacement, removal, or addition of electrical or mechanical components
Examples include:
Replacing a duplex outlet, light switch, fluorescent

fixture ballast, fuses, circuit breakers Drilling or punching holes in a panelboard Pulling conductors into a panelboard
258

 Working on or near live parts must be justified Diagnostic Energized Work is allowed when the diagnostic activity is not feasible with the circuit deenergized Manipulative Energized Work is prohibited at Fermilab unless it can be demonstrated that deenergization introduces additional or increased hazards or is infeasible due to equipment design or operational limitations
259

Shock Hazard and Protection

There is No One Solution for Protection from Shock,

but Really Pretty Simple

Degree of protection is determined primarily by system

voltage and distance from the energized part

260

FN000385/CR, Electrical Safety in the Workplace

261

Shock Protection Boundaries

Limited Approach Boundary Distance from an exposed live part within which a shock hazard exists
Note that this Boundary is significant to Fermilabs

definition of Energized Work

262

 Restricted Approach Boundary Distance from an exposed live part within which there is an increased risk of shock due to electrical arc over, combined with inadvertent movement, for personnel working in close proximity to the live part Prohibited Approach Boundary Distance from an exposed live part within which work is considered the same as making contact with the live part

263

Shock Protection
Shock Hazard Analysis Defined at 130.2 (A) Shock Protection Boundaries Defined at Table 130.2 (C)
You are Responsible for Establishing, Maintaining, and Communicating to Others the Extent of these Boundaries

FN000385/CR, Electrical Safety in the Workplace

264

Table 130.2 (C)

Table 130.2(C) Approach Boundaries to Live Parts for Shock Protection. (All dimensions are distance from live part to employee.) Nominal System Voltage Range, Phase to Phase Less than 50 50 to 300 301 to 750 751 to 15 kV 15.1 kV to 36 kV 36.1 kV to 46 kV 46.1 kV to 72.5 kV 72.6 kV to 121 kV 138 kV to 145 kV 161 kV to 169 kV 230 kV to 242 kV 345 kV to 362 kV 500 kV to 550 kV 765 kV to 800 kV Limited Approach Boundary -------------------------------------------------------Exposed Movable Exposed Fixed Conductor Circuit Part Not specified 10 ft 0 in. 10 ft 0 in. 10 ft 0 in. 10 ft 0 in. 10 ft 0 in. 10 ft 0 in. 10 ft 8 in. 11 ft 0 in. 11 ft 8 in. 13 ft 0 in. 15 ft 4 in. 19 ft 0 in. 23 ft 9 in. Not specified 3 ft 6 in. 3 ft 6 in. 5 ft 0 in. 6 ft 0 in. 8 ft 0 in. 8 ft 0 in. 8 ft 0 in. 10 ft 0 in. 11 ft 8 in. 13 ft 0 in. 15 ft 4 in. 19 ft 0 in. 23 ft 9 in. Restricted Approach Boundary; Includes Inadvertent Movement Adder Not specified Avoid contact 1 ft 0 in. 2 ft 2 in. 2 ft 7 in. 2 ft 9 in. 3 ft 2 in. 3 ft 3 in. 3 ft 7 in. 4 ft 0 in. 5 ft 3 in. 8 ft 6 in. 11 ft 3 in. 14 ft 11 in. Prohibited Approach Boundary Not specified Avoid contact 0 ft 1 in. 0 ft 7 in. 0ft 10 in. 1 ft 5 in. 2 ft 1 in. 2 ft 8 in. 3 ft 1 in. 3 ft 6 in. 4 ft 9 in. 8 ft 0 in. 10 ft 9 in. 14 ft 5 in.

Note: For Flash Protection Boundary, see 130.3(A). See definition in Article 100 and text in 130.2(D)(2) and Annex C for elaboration.

FN000385/CR, Electrical Safety in the Workplace

265

FN000385/CR, Electrical Safety in the Workplace

266

Limited Approach Boundary

Limited Approach Boundary (LAB)
3 feet 6 inches for 50 to 750 Volts 5 feet for 13.8 KV 15 feet 4 inches for 345 KV

Occupancy generally limited to Qualified Workers Unqualified persons may enter if advised of hazards and continuously escorted Appropriately rated insulated tools and/or equipment must be used if they might (likely) make accidental contact with exposed live parts

267

Restricted Approach Boundary

Restricted Approach Boundary (RAB)
Avoid Contact for 50 to 300 Volts 1 foot for 301 to 750 Volts 2 feet 2 inches for 13.8 KV

Occupancy only by Qualified Workers May not cross boundary with conductive objects No uninsulated part of the body may cross this

boundary For voltages greater than 300 Volts, must wear PPE for shock protection, such as insulating gloves and insulating sleeves
268

Prohibited Approach Boundary

Prohibited Approach Boundary (PAB) Avoid Contact for 50 to 300 Volts 1 inch for 301 to 750 Volts 7 inches for 13.8 KV For 50 to 300 Volts, wearing of PPE for shock

protection is advised if body contact with exposed live parts is likely

FN000385/CR, Electrical Safety in the Workplace

269

FN000385/CR, Electrical Safety in the Workplace

270

Approach Boundaries Limited Approach Boundary

Restricts the approach of unqualified persons

Restricted and Prohibited

Approach Boundaries
Restricts the approach of qualified persons

271

PPE and Equipment for Shock Protection

PPE Insulating Gloves, Matting, and Blankets Tools

Insulated Tools, Hot Sticks, Static Discharge Sticks, Rescue Tools ALWAYS Inspect Before Use and Maintain as Required Keep the Tools and Equipment Clean

272

Electrically Insulating Gloves

Glove Classes by Use Voltage

Class 00 500 volts Class 1 7,500 volts

Class 3 26,500 volts

Class 0 1,000 volts Class 2 17,000 volts

Class 4 36,000 volts

Procure Through Your Local D/S ES&H Department

Use Leather Protectors with Gloves Gloves must be tested after every 6 months of use through

Fermilabs program (April 1 and October 1 are Scheduled Exchange Dates)

273

Over Voltage Category

The level and energy of voltage impulses or surges is

dependent on the location. The closer the location is to the power source, the higher the available fault current, the higher the category
IEC 61010 defines four locations or categories:
CAT IV CAT III CAT II CAT I Origin of installation Utility level and any outside cable run Distribution wiring, including mains bus, feeders and branch circuits; permanently installed loads. Receptacle outlet circuit; plug-in loads. Protected electronic circuits
274

Category Locations

275

Look for CAT III or CAT IV Markings

CAT III1000 V

CAT IV-600 V CAT III-1000 V

CAT III600 V
276

Voltage Testing Equipment

Meters Use Cat III Rated 600 or 1000 Volt for Indoor Work (Fluke T3 Tester is Stocked) Use Cat IV for Outdoor Work Proximity Inductive Voltage Probes The Wiggy No Longer Acceptable
Test Before and After Use LOTO after use check

277

Meter Safety Checklist

Watch for:
Cracked or oily case Broken input jacks

No Meter is Safe When Improperly Used.

Use meters within their rating. Use meters designed for measurements on power

circuits. Use replacement fuses approved by the manufacturer

278

Pertinent Definitions
Flash Protection Boundary Distance from an exposed live part within which a person could receive a 2o burn from an arc-flash Incident energy necessary for a 2nd degree burn is 1.2 cal/cm2 with an exposure time of 1 second

279

Pertinent Definitions
Arc Thermal Protection Value (ATPV)
A rating associated with PPE such as face shields, hoods,

jackets, coats and coveralls that is expressed in cal/cm2

Flame-Resistant (FR)
The property of a material whereby combustion is

prevented, terminated, or inhibited following the application of a flaming or non-flaming source of ignition, with or without subsequent removal of the ignition source

280

1997 Arc-Flash Accident at F0 Compressor Room

281

Fault Current and Duration Determine the Incident Energy of the Arc-Flash

282

Fault Current
Short Circuit or Bolted Fault Current
Available Fault Current is Not Infinite Limited by the Utility Generator, Transformers, Conductor Sizes and Length Different Values within the Circuit Transformer Impedance (%IZ)

- Fundamental to the Value of the Short Circuit Current of a Transformer

283

First Calculate the Transformers Full Load Current I FLA = (Transformer KVA Rating x1000)/ (Secondary Voltage Line to Line X 1.732)
2,000 KVA, 13.8KV to 480 VAC 2,406 Amps

1500 KVA, 13.8 KV to 480 VAC

750 KVA, 13.8 KV to 480 VAC 500 KVA, 13.8 KV to 480 VAC 75 KVA, 480 VAC to 120/208 VAC 45 KVA, 480 KVA to 120/208 VAC

1,804 Amps
902 Amps 601 Amps 208 Amps 125 Amps

284

Then Calculate the Short Circuit Current 0.9) I SCA = (1FLA X 100) / (Transformer %IZ x
2000 KVA 480 VAC Out with 5.8%IZ 46,086 Amps

1500 KVA 480 VAC Out with 5.7%IZ 750 KVA 480 VAC Out with 5.75%IZ
500 KVA 480 VAC Out with 2.3%IZ 75 KVA 120/208 VAC Out with 4.3%IZ 45 KVA 120/208 VAC Out with 4.1%IZ

35,171 Amps 17,433 Amps

29,054 Amps 5,379 Amps 3,385 Amps

285

NEC 110.10 Component Protection

2003 Cooper Bussmann, Inc.

286

Typical Trip Curves

287

Typical Trip Times

Circuit Breakers 0.1 second or 6 cycles typical. Varies by Manufacturer and Current. See Trip Curves. Current Limiting Fuses Generally one-half of a line cycle. Classes RK1, J, T and L are best. Yard Transformers: Consult with FESS (Joe Pathiyil) for specific location trip times

288

Other Factors to Consider

Conductor size also serves to limit the available short

circuit current due to the natural resistance of the wire Short Circuit Currents for Utilization Equipment are Most Always Less than those of the Sourcing Panelboard Exposure depends on distance to incident energy. 18 Inches is a typical value used. Open or apply the Box Factor

289

Flash Hazard AnalysisProtection The Flash HA determines the Flash

Boundary and the protective clothing and PPE required
Refer 130.3 on page 25

Requires knowledge of Fault current Duration of the fault current Location of potential arc-flash and Worker body position

290

Flash Protection Boundary

NFPA 70E 130.3 (A):

D FPB = (2.65 X MVA bf X t)1/2

2000 KVA with t = 0.1 2.4 Feet

1500 KVA with t = 0.1 750 KVA with t = 0.1 500 KVA with t = 0.1 75 KVA with t = 0.05 45 KVA with t = 0.05

2.1 Feet 1.5 Feet 1.9 Feet 0.4 Feet 0.3 feet

Systems 600 volts or less default boundary 4

291

Wear and Care of PPE

Wear Cotton
Avoid Scratching Eye Protection No Bleach or Fabric Softeners Wear Clothing Loose, rather than Tight Layering Increases Protection Dry is Better than Wet

292

Safe Work Practices

Be Alert

Use Common Sense

No blind reaching. If view is obstructed, you cannot

work on live parts. Illumination must be provided Conductive articles (jewelry, clothing) shall not be worn

293

Safe Work Practices

Plan for Emergencies Know how to de-energize Quickly or Be prepared to pull employee free with an Insulated Rescue Hook Have the Means Available to Contact Emergency Personnel - Dial 3131 Know CPR & Where AEDs are located

Contact ESH Section for training

See FESHM 5048 for additional SWPs

294

Verification of De-Energization
Most Important Step in LOTO Assume Energized PPE, Voltage Rated Tools and Gloves Establish Appropriate Boundaries Do not use Proximity Meters as your Primary Testing

Tool (HV excepted) Know your Test Equipment is Working

Test Before and After Use

295

THANK YOU
OPEN DISCUSSION