TIME DISPERSION

It is another problem

relating to multiple paths to the Rx antenna of either an MS or BTS. However, in contrast to Rayleigh fading, the reflected signal comes from an object far away from the Rx antenna. Time dispersion causes Inter Symbol Interference(ISI) where consecutive symbols interfere with each other making it difficult for the receiver to determine which symbol is the correct one. Where the sequence 1,0 is sent from the BTS.

0 0

1 1

0
1

TIME ALIGNMENT

Each MS on a call is allocated a time slot on a TDMA frame. This is an amount of time during which the MS transmits information to the BTS. The information must also arrive at the BTS within the time slot. The time alignment problem occurs when part of the information transmitted by an MS does not arrive during the next time slot, and may interfere with information from another MS using that other time slot. Time alignment is caused by a large distance between the MS and the BTS. Effectively, the signal can not travel over the large distance within the given time. For Example, an MS is close to a BTS and has been allocated time slot 3(TS 3). During the call, the MS moves away from the BTS causing the information sent from the BTS to arrive at the MS later and later. The answer from the MS also arrives later at the BTS. If nothing is done, the delay becomes so long that the transmission from the ms in time slot 3 overlaps with the information which the

TDMA FRAME TS0 TS1 TS 2 BT S

A Close to BTS

Far away from

COMBINED SIGNAL LOSS

Each of the problem described above occur independently of each other. Signa l However, in most calls some of these problems may occur at the same time. Level) (dB) An illustration of what the signal strength may look like at the MS Rx antenna when moving away from the BTS Tx antenna. The problem of path loss, shadowing and Rayleigh fading are present for this transmission path. The signal strength as a global mean value decreases with the distance (path loss) and finally results in a lost connection. Around this global mean, show variations are present due to shadowing effects and fast variations are present due to Rayleigh fading. The lowest signal strength value required for a specified output is called receiver sensitivity level. To detect the information sent from Tx antenna, X watts must be received. If the signal Fadi falls below X, the information will be ng lost and the call may be dropped. To Mar ensure that no information is lost, the global mean value must be as many gin dB above the receiver sensitivity level as the strongest(deepest) fading dip give rise to. This fading margin is the difference between the global mean value and the receiver sensitivity.

PATH LOSS

Log(Distance Rayleigh Fading )

Rx Signal Strength

HIGH BIT ERROR RATE(BER)

The BER difference between optical and wireless transmission is in the order

of 107 1010 , value down to 10-3 are not uncommon. Further more, errors are likely to appear in burst(lightening, interference of other devices etc.)

RADIO SWITCH OVERTIMES

Most radio equipments in Half duplex :
It does not make sense to hand and receive on the some frequency at the

same time. Building Blocks of receivers can be recycled in the transmitter reducing costve to stabilize.. Tx and Rx functions are not interleaved and usually employ different frequencies. To switch the radio from reception to transmission, the internal circuit .

SIGNAL LOCK-ON
If radio signal starts receiving a signal it locks itself on the signal(e.g., using

PLLs) If there is another signal interfering after the lock-on receiver circuits may still receive the 1st signal(Signal Carriers) are unlikely to be on exact some frequency. More of a phenomenon a problem, although it can cause some strange effects.

problems
This section describes some solutions to the problem described in

previous sections. Although many of these do not entirely solve all problem on the radio transmission path, they do play an important part in maintaining call quality for as long as possible.

CHANNEL CODING
In digital transmission, the quality of the transmitted signal is often

expressed in terms of how many of the received bits are incorrect. This is called Bit Error Rate(BER). BER defines the percentage of the total number of received bits which are incorrectly detected.
Transmitted Bits
Received Bits Errors

1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
3/10 =

30%BER
This percentage should be as low as possible. It is not possible to reduce

the percentage to zero because the transmission path is constantly changing. This means that there must be an allowance for a certain amount of errors and at the same time an ability to restore the in formation, or at least detect errors so the incorrect information bits are not interpreted as correct. This is especially important during

INTERLEAVIN G
In reality, bit errors often occur in sequence, as caused by long fading

dips affecting several consecutive bits. Channel coding is most effective in detecting and correcting signal errors and short error sequence. It is not suitable for handling longer sequence of bit errors. For this reason, a process called interleaving is used to separate consecutive bits of a message so that these are transmitted in a nonconsecutive way. For example, a message block may consist of four bits(1234). If four message blocks must be transmitted, and one is lost in transmission, without interleaving there is a 25% BER overall, but a 100% BER 4 1 2 lost message block. It is not possibleMessage Blocks to recover 1 2 3 for that 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 from this.
Interleaving 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 Interleaved msg Blocks

If interleaving is used, the bits of each block may be sent in a non-

consecutive manner. If one block is lost in transmission , again there is a 25% BER overall. However, this time the 25% is spread over the Received 1 X set of message blocks, giving a4 1 BER3for4each. This is more 3 4 1 X 3 4 1 X 3 25% X entire Interleaved

DIVERSITY
In telecommunication, a diversity scheme refers to a method for improving

the reliability of a message signal by utilizing two of more communication channels with different characteristics. Diversity plays an important role in combating fading and co-channel interference and avoiding error bursts. It is based on the fact that individual channel experience different level of fading interference. Multiple versions of the same signal may be transmitted and/or received and combined in the receiver. Alternatively, a redundant forward error correction code may be added and different parts of the message transmitted over different channels. Diversity techniques may exploit the multipath propagation, resulting in a diversity gain, often measured in decibels.
DIVERSITY GAIN In wireless communication, diversity gain in the increase in signal-to-

interference radio due to some diversity scheme, or how much the transmission power can be reduced when a diversity scheme is introduced, without a performance loss. Diversity gain is usually expressed in decibel, and sometimes as a power ratio. An example is soft handoff gain. For selection combining N signals are received , and the strongest signal is selected. When the N signals are independently and Rayleigh distributed, the expected diversity gain has been shown to be n k=1 1/K expressed as a power ratio.
DECIBEL The decibel(dB) is a logarithmic unit of measurement that expresses the

magnitude of a physical quantity (usually power or intensity) relative to a

Cont..
When referring to measurements of power or intensity, a

ratio can be expressed in decibels by evaluating ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the measured quantity to the reference level. Thus, XdB is calculated using the formula. XdB =10log10 (X/X0) Where, X is the actual value of the quantity being measured X0 is a specified or implied reference level, and then XdB is the quantity expressed in units of decibels, relative X0. If X is greater than X0 then XdB is positive. If X is less than X0 then XdB is negative. From the above equation we get after rearrangement X = 10XdB/10 X0 Since a bel is equal to ten decibels, the corresponding formulae for measuring in bels X are X = Log (X/X ),

CONT
The following classes of diversity schemes can be

identified:
Space Diversity

Polarization Diversity
Time Diversity Frequency Diversity

Multi user Diversity

Antenna Diversity Cooperation Diversity Did you know ?
One of the most expensive aspects of cellular network operation is payment of rent for sites, e.g. hotel rooms. Great care is often taken to ensure public support for sites. (e.g. in California some BTSs are hidden within fiber glass palm trees.)

SPACE DIVERSITY
The signal is transferred over several different propagation

paths. In the case of wired transmission, this can be achieved by transmitting via multiple wires. In the case of wireless transmission, it can be achieved by antenna diversity using multiple transmitter antenna and multiple receiving antenna. In the later case , a diversity combining technique is applied before further signal processing takes place. If the antenna are at far distance at different cellular base stations sites or WLAN access points, this is called macro diversity. If the antennas are at a distance in the order of one wavelength, this is called micro diversity. Antenna diversity increases the received signal strength by taking advantage of the natural properties of radio waves. An increased received signal strength at the BTS may be achieved by mounting two receiver antenna instead of one. If the two Rx antenna are physically separated, the probability that both of them are affected by a deep fading dip at the same time is low. At 900 MHz, it is possible to gain about 3 dB with a distance of five to six meters between the antenna. At 1800 MHz the distance can be shortened because of its decreased wavelength. By choosing the best of each signal, the impact of

POLARIZATION DIVERSITY
With polarization diversity the two space diversity

antenna are replaced by one dual polarized antenna. This antenna has normal size but contains two differently polarized antenna arrays. The most common types are vertical/horizontal arrays and arrays in 45 degree slant orientation. The two arrays are connected to the respective Rx branches in the BTS. The two arrays can also be us Tx/Rx antennas. For most applications, the difference between the diversity gain for space diversity and polarization diversity is negligible, but polarization diversity reduces the space required for antenna. The use of space diversity in the reception of mobile radio signals is a well known technique to mitigate fading is implemented in most wireless systems of today. Further, in a mobile communication system, base station antennas with a nominal 45 degree to

TIME DIVERSITY
Time Diversity is used in digital communication

systems to combat that the transmissions channel may suffer from error bursts due to time-varying channel conditions. The error bursts may be caused by fading in combination with a moving receiver, transmitter or obstacle, or by intermittent electromagnetic interference, for example from crosstalk in a cable, or co-channel interference from radio transmitters. Time diversity implies that the same data is transmitted multiple times, or a redundant error code is added. By means of bitinterleaving, the error bursts may be spread in time. Multiple versions of the same signal are transmitted at different time instants. Alternatively, a redundant forward error correction code is added and the

FREQUENCY DIVERSITY
Frequency diversity relies on the fact that the fading is

different at different frequencies. It is sometime said that it is not correlated. Hence when there is a fade at one frequency, there may not be a fade at another. To make use of this, you simply transmit your signal on two frequencies, perhaps 100 KHz apart. At the receiving end, a circuit measures the signal to noise ratio in two receivers and automatically selects which is best at any instant in time. This works well but it is rather inefficient to have the same information transmitted on two frequencies. Continuous voice transmission with no errors is always the goal when designing a cordless phone. Usually there are inevitable impairments to the link budget, the solutions

MULTIPATH DIVERSITY
Multipath transmission will occur

whenever the base station and the handset are not both inside the same anechoic chamber. When the handset and base station are within line of sight, the primary propagation will usually be the line of sight and secondary propagation due to reflections will be less significant. Reflected propagations become more significant if the line of sight is obstructed. In fact, reflected transmissions may well be dominant in a normal home environment. Whenever there is more than one significant wave on a mobile receive antenna, the receivers will be subject to varying signals levels as it moves around.

MS

Reflector BTS