CHAPTER ONE

Shear Strength of Soils

By Yada T.
Nov/2012
Introduction
In this chapter we will define, describe, and
determine the shear strength of soils. When you
complete this chapter, you should be able to;
Determine the shear strength of soils.
Understand the difference between drained and undrained
shear strength.
Determine the type of shear test that best simulates field
conditions.
Interpret laboratory and field test results to obtain shear
strength parameters.
1.0 Introduction
The safety of any geotechnical structure is
dependent on the strength of the soil.
If the soil fails, a structure founded on it can collapse,
endangering lives and causing economic damages.
Soils fail either in tension or in shear.
However, in the majority of soil mechanics problems
(such as bearing capacity, lateral pressure against
retaining walls, slope stability, etc.), only failure in
shear requires consideration.
Strength of different
materials
Steel
Tensile
strength
Concrete
Compressive
strength
Soil
Shear
strength
Presence of pore water
Complex
behavior
Cont.
Expansive Soil

Cont.
Cont
Typical "roller-
coaster" road
caused by
expansive soils
Cracks in exterior walls, as a
result of upward soil
expansion
Embankment
Strip footing
Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear
At failure, shear stress along the failure surface
(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Failure surface
Mobilized shear
resistance
Retaining
wall
Shear failure of soils
Retaining
wall
At failure, shear stress along the failure surface
(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Failure
surface
Mobilized shear
resistance
Shear failure of soils
Shear failure mechanism
The soil grains slide
over each other along
the failure surface.
No crushing of
individual grains.
failure surface
Shear failure mechanism
At failure, shear stress along the failure surface (t)
reaches the shear strength (t
f
).
Contd
The shear strength of soils is, therefore, paramount
importance to geotechnical engineers.
The shear strength along any plane is mobilized by
cohesion and frictional resistance to sliding between
soil particles.
The cohesion(c) and angle of friction () of a soil are
collectively known as shear strength parameters.

Coulombs Frictional Law

You may recall Coulombs frictional law from your
courses in statics and physics. If a block of weight (W)
is pushed horizontally on a plane (Fig. 1.1a), the
horizontal force (H) required to initiating movement
is:

Where:- =coefficient of static friction between the
block and the horizontal plane.
NB coefficient of static friction is independent of
the area of contact.
W H =
Contd
It is, however, strongly dependent on;
the nature of the surface in contact
the type of material
the condition of the surface and so on.
The angle between the resultant force R and the
normal force N (Fig. 1.1) is called the friction angle
|
1
tan

=
Figure 1.1: (a) Slip plane of a block. (b) A slip plane in a
soil mass

In terms of stresses, Coulombs law is
expressed as:
| o t tan
n f
=


Contd
Where:-
( = T/A) the shear stress when slip is initiated

( =N/A) the normal stress on the plane on which slip is
initiated
Coulombs law requires the existence or the
development of a critical sliding plane, also
called slip plane or failure plane. In the case of
the block the slip plane is at the interface
between the block and the horizontal plane.
f
t
n
o
Mohrs Circle for Stress

The stress states at a point within a soil mass can be
represented graphically by a very useful and widely
used devise known as Mohrs circle for stress.
The stress state at a point is the set of stress vectors
corresponding to all planes passing through that point.
For simplicity, we will consider a two-dimensional
element with stresses as shown in Fig. 1.2a.
Lets draw Mohrs circle. First, we have to choose a
sign convention. In soil mechanics, compressive
stresses and clockwise shear are generally assumed to
be positive.
Contd

We will also assume that
x z
o o >
Mohrs Circle for Stress

The two coordinates of the circle are ( ) and

Recall from your strength of materials course that, for
equilibrium ..
Plot these two coordinates on a graph of shear stress
(ordinate) and normal stress (abscissa) as shown by A
and B in Fig. above.
Draw a circle with AB as the diameter. The circle
crosses the normal stress axis at 1 and 3, where shear
stresses are equal to zero.
The stresses at these points are the major principal
stress, , and the minor principal stress, .

zx z
t o ,
zx x
t o ,
zx xz
t t =
1
o
1
o
1
o
3
o
Contd

The principal stresses are related to the stresses
and by the following relations:

z x
o o ,
z x
o o ,
zx
t
2
2
1
2 2
zx
x z x z
t
o o o o
o +
|
.
|

\
|

+
+
=
2
2
3
2 2
zx
x z x z
t
o o o o
o +
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
The angle between the major principal stress
plane and the horizontal plane( ).

Contd

.

The stresses on a plane oriented at an angle
to the major principal stress plane are:



The maximum shear stress is at the top of the
circle with magnitude:






x
zx
o o
t

=
1
tan
u
u
o o o o
o
u
2 cos
2 2
3 1 3 1

+
+
=
u
o o
t
u
2 sin
2
3 1

=
Contd





2
3 1
max
o o
t

=
Contd

Summary of today Session
Safety of geotechnical structures concerning bearing capacity,
slope stability, lateral earth pressure against retaining wall
problems are depend on shear strength of soils.
The cohesion(c) and angle of friction () of a soil are known as
shear strength parameters.
Define cohesion and angle of friction of soil.
Derive major principal , minor principal stress and maximum
shear stress from Mohr's circle?
What is failure plane?
What is the fails happen in soil, concrete, and steel?
Search structure surround your environments failed
due to shear failure.



Free charge
assignment


.


Next class:
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria


Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria

In 1900, Mohr presented a theory for rupture in
materials. According to this theory, failure along a
plane in a material occurs by a critical combination of
normal and shear stresses, and not by normal or shear
stress alone.
The functional relation between normal and shear
stress on the failure plane can be given by
s=f( )

where:- S=shear stress at failure
= Normal stress on failure plane.

o
o

Contd..

Coulomb (1776) suggested that the shear strength of a soil
along a failure plane could be described by:



Where:- c is cohesion and is the angle of friction of the soil.
This Equation is generally referred to as the MohrCoulomb
failure criteria.

| o t tan
n f
c + =
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of total stresses)
t
t
f
is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without failure,
under normal stress of o.
o
| o t tan + = c
f
c
|
Cohesion
Friction angle
t
f
o
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of effective stresses)
u =o o
'
t
f
is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without failure,
under normal effective stress of o.
t
o
' tan ' ' | o t + = c
f
c
|
Effective
cohesion
Effective
friction angle
t
f
o
u = pore water
pressure
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
' tan ' ' | o t
f f
c + =
Shear strength consists of two components:
cohesive and frictional.
o
f

t
f

|
t
o'
c c
o
f
tan |
frictional
component
c and | are measures of shear strength.
Higher the values, higher the shear strength.
Soil elements at different locations
Failure surface
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
X
X
X ~ failure
Y
Y
Y ~ stable
t
o
' tan ' ' | o t + = c
f
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
Y
o
c

o
c

o
c

Initially, Mohr circle is a point
Ao
o
c
+Ao
Ao
The soil element does not fail if
the Mohr circle is contained within
the envelope
GL
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
Y
o
c

o
c

o
c

GL
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger
.. and finally failure occurs when
Mohr circle touches the
envelope
Ao
Mohr circles in terms of total & effective stresses
=
X
o
v

o
h

X
u
u
+
o
v
o
h

effective stresses
u
o
v
o
h

X
o
v

o
h

total stresses
t
o or o
Failure envelopes in terms of total & effective stresses
=
X
o
v

o
h

X
u
u
+
o
v
o
h

effective stresses
u
o
v
o
h

X
o
v

o
h

total stresses
t
o or o
If X is on
failure
c
|
Failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
|
c
Failure envelope in terms
of effective stresses

Drained and undrained Shear strength


Drained condition occurs when the excess pore water pressure
developed during loading of a soil dissipates, i.e.
resulting in volume changes in the soil.
Loose sands, normally consolidated clays and lightly over
consolidated clays tend to compress or contract, whilst dense
sands and heavily over consolidated (OCR > 2) clays tend to
expand during drained condition.
Undrained condition occurs when the excess pore water
pressure cannot drain, at least quickly from the soil, i.e.
During undrained shearing, the volume of the soil remains
constant. Consequently, the tendency towards volume change
induces a pressure in the pore water.
If the specimen tends to compress or contract during shear, then
the induced pore water pressure is positive.
0 = Au
0 = Au

Contd..

Positive pore water pressures occur in loose sands, normally
consolidated clays and lightly over consolidated clays.
If the specimen tends to expand and swell during shear, the
induced pore water pressure is negative. It wants to expand and
draw water into the pores, but it can not. Negative pore water
pressures occur in dense sands and heavily over consolidated
(OCR > 2) clays.
The shear strength of a fine-grained soil under undrained
condition is called the undrained shear strength, S
u
. The
undrained shear strength S
u
is the radius of Mohrs total stress
circle; that is
2 2
) ( ) (
2
'
3
'
1
'
3
'
1 3 1
o o o o o o
=
+ +
=

=
u u
S
u
EXAMPLE - 1
1, A sample of clay has a cohesive strength of 80kN/m
2
,and
an angle of shearing resistance of 10
0
.calculate the
shearing strength of clay at a normal stress of 100kN/m
2

Solution - 1
Given c = 80kN/m
|= 10
0
and
o= 100kN/m
2

The shearing strength is

| o t tan + = c
2 0
/ 63 . 97 10 tan 100 80 m kN = + = t
EXAMPLE - 2
A cube sample of soil 100 mm100 mm is subjected to
the forces shown in Fig. below. Determine
(a) The principal stress o
1
& o
3.

(b) The maximum shear stress, and
(c) The stresses on a plane oriented at =30
0
clockwise
to the major principal stress plane.

SOLUTION -2
Thus



The principal stresses are:




Max shear stress


500
1 . 0 * 1 . 0
5
= = =
A
F
z
z
o
300
1 . 0 * 1 . 0
3
= = =
A
F
x
x
o
100
1 . 0 * 1 . 0
1
= = =
A
T
xz
t
100
1 . 0 * 1 . 0
1
= = =
A
T
zx
t
kpa 42 . 541 ) 100 (
2
300 500
2
300 500
2
2
1
= +
|
.
|

\
|

+
+
= o
kpa 58 . 258 ) 100 (
2
300 500
2
300 500
2
2
3
= +
|
.
|

\
|

+
= o
42 . 141
2
58 . 258 42 . 541
2
3 1
max
=

=
o o
t
SOLUTION - 2
The stress on a plane(=30
0
cw = 150 ccw) is given by:-






The angle between major principal plane and horizontal
plane :-



0 1
1
1
5 . 22 ]
300 42 . 541
100
[ tan ] [ tan =

=

x
zx
o o
t

kpa 71 . 470 150 * 2 cos

2
58 . 258 42 . 541
2
58 . 258 42 . 541
2 cos
2 2
3 1 3 1
=

+
+
=

+
+
= u
o o o o
o
o
KPa 47 . 122 150 * 2 sin
2
58 . 258 42 . 541
2 sin
2
3 1
=

= u
o o
t
o
Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (c, | or c, |)
Laboratory tests on specimens
taken from representative
undisturbed samples
Field tests
Most common laboratory tests
to determine the shear strength
parameters are,
1.Direct shear test
2.Triaxial shear test
3. unconfined compression test
1.Vane shear test
2. Cone penetration test
3.Standard penetration test
4. Pocket penetrometer
5. Fall cone
6. Pressuremeter

Preconsolidation Stress or past maximum effective stress, is the
maximum vertical effective stress that a soil was subjected to in
the past
zc
.
Normally Consolidated Soil is one that has never experienced
vertical effective stresses greater than its current vertical
effective stress (
zc
=
zo
).
Over consolidated Soil is one that has experienced vertical
effective stresses greater than its current vertical effective stress
(
zo
<
zc
).
Over consolidation ratio, OCR, is the ratio by which the current
vertical effective stress in the soil was exceeded in the past
(OCR =
zc
/
zo
).


Remember those key terms
Laboratory tests
Field conditions
z
o
vc
o
vc
o
hc
o
hc
Before construction
A representative
soil sample
z
o
vc
+ Ao

o
hc
o
hc
After and during
construction
o
vc
+ Ao

Laboratory tests
Simulating field conditions in
the laboratory
Step 1
Set the specimen in
the apparatus and
apply the initial
stress condition
o
vc
o
vc
o
hc
o
hc
Representative soil
sample taken
from the site
0
0 0
0
Step 2
Apply the
corresponding field
stress conditions
o
vc
+ Ao

o
hc
o
hc
o
vc
+ Ao
o
vc

o
vc

t
t
1.Direct shear test
Schematic diagram of the direct shear apparatus
Direct shear test
Preparation of a sand specimen
Components of the shear box Preparation of a sand specimen
Porous
plates
Direct shear test is most suitable for consolidated drained tests
specially on granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays
Direct shear test
Leveling the top surface of
specimen
Preparation of a sand specimen
Specimen preparation
completed
Pressure plate
Direct shear test
Test procedure
Porous
plates
Pressure plate
Steel ball
Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
P
Proving ring to
measure shear
force
S
Direct shear test
Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate
Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
P
Test procedure
Pressure plate
Steel ball
Proving ring to
measure shear
force
S
Porous
plates
Interface tests on direct shear apparatus
In many foundation design problems and retaining wall problems, it is required
to determine the angle of internal friction between soil and the structural
material (concrete, steel or wood)
o o t tan ' + =
a f
c
Where,
c
a
= adhesion,
o = angle of internal friction
Foundation material
Soil
P
S
Foundation material
Soil
P
S
The direct shear box test particularly applicable to those
foundation design problems where it is necessary to determine
the angle of friction between the soil and material of which the
foundation is constructed.
The friction between the base of the concrete footing
underneath soil, in such case ,the lower box with soil and the
upper box contain the foundation material.
The soil is used for test are either undisturbed sample or
remolded. If undisturbed ,the specimen has to be carefully
trimmed and filled in to the box.
If remolded ,the soil is placed in to the box in layer at the
required initial water content and tamped to the required dry
density .
Porous stones may be placed on the top and bottom part of the
sample to facilitate drainage.

Direct shear test
Shear box
Loading frame to
apply vertical load
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement
Dial gauge to measure
horizontal displacement
Proving ring to
measure shear
force
Observation/ analysis test results
1. For each specimen plot the shear stress Vs shear
displacement (horizontal displacement).
Plot the graph of shear strength Vs normal stress for the three
specimens and calculate the shear strength parameters for the
soil.
Type of Test : Direct shear test. Deter. of moisture content
Calibration factor = __ Moisture Content (%) =___
Normal Load Applied = 1,2,3 kg *9.81m/s
Horizontal Dial Gauge Constant: 20 Division
Calibration factor=0.001mm/Division
Due to normal load_________ Normal stress_________Kpa










ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY
Direct Shear Test
Project:
LOCATION:
Sample No. TP 2 Sample Depth, m: 2.20
Thickness of sample: 25 mm Ring Calib. Factor: 0.70 N/div Wet unit weight, kN/M
3
: 18.56
Length of sample : 60 mm Rate of strain : 0.1 mm/min Dry Unit Weight, kN/M
3
: 14.62
Width of sample: 60 mm Moisture content, % 27.0 Sample Condition: Disturbed
Applied Vertical Stress 100 kPa Applied Vertical Stress 200 kPa Applied Vertical Stress 300 kPa
Horizontal
Displacem
ent [mm]
Corrected
Area
[mm2]
Proving
Ring
Reading
Shear load
[N]
Shear
Stress
[kPa]
Proving
Ring
Reading
Shear load
[N]
Shear
Stress
[kPa]
Proving
Ring
Reading
Shear load
[N]
Shear
Stress
[kPa]
0.0 3600 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.5 3570 50.00 35.00 9.80 90.00 63.00 17.65 110.00 77.00 21.57
1.0 3540 75.00 52.50 14.83 110.00 77.00 21.75 130.00 91.00 25.71
1.5 3510 105.00 73.50 20.94 140.00 98.00 27.92 170.00 119.00 33.90
2.0 3480 140.00 98.00 28.16 170.00 119.00 34.20 195.00 136.50 39.22
2.5 3450 175.00 122.50 35.51 200.00 140.00 40.58 230.00 161.00 46.67
3.0 3420 190.00 133.00 38.89 230.00 161.00 47.08 258.00 180.60 52.81
3.5 3390 210.00 147.00 43.36 260.00 182.00 53.69 300.00 210.00 61.95
4.0 3360 240.00 168.00 50.00 290.00 203.00 60.42 340.00 238.00 70.83
5.0 2880 - - - - - - 610.00 427.00 148.26
Max. shear stress,kPa 50.00 Max. shear stress,kPa 60.42 Max. shear stress,kPa 148.26
Analysis of test results
sample the of section cross of Area
(P) force Normal
stress Normal = = o
sample the of section cross of Area
(S) surface sliding at the developed resistance Shear
stress Shear = = t
Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes with the horizontal
displacement
Shear load = Proving ring reading x Ring Calibration Factor
Corrected Cross-sectional =Ao[1+[L3]]
t
f1
Normal stress = o
1
Direct shear tests on sands
How to determine strength parameters c and |
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

t

Shear displacement
t
f2
Normal stress = o
2
t
f3
Normal stress = o
3
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

a
t

f
a
i
l
u
r
e
,

t
f

Normal stress, o
|
Mohr Coulomb failure envelope
Direct shear tests on sands
Some important facts on strength parameters c and | of sand
Sand is cohesionless hence
c = 0
Direct shear tests are drained
and pore water pressures are
dissipated, hence u = 0
Therefore,
| = | and c = c = 0
Direct shear tests on clays
Failure envelopes for clay from drained direct shear tests
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

a
t

f
a
i
l
u
r
e
,

t
f

Normal force, o
|
Normally consolidated clay (c = 0)
In case of clay, horizontal displacement should be applied at a very
slow rate to allow dissipation of pore water pressure (therefore, one
test would take several days to finish)
Overconsolidated clay (c 0)
Advantages of direct shear apparatus
Due to the smaller thickness of the sample, rapid drainage can
be achieved
Can be used to determine strength parameters c and |
Clay samples can be oriented along the plane of weakness or
an identified failure plane
Disadvantages of direct shear apparatus
Failure occurs along a predetermined failure plane
Area of the sliding surface changes as the test progresses
Non-uniform distribution of shear stress along the failure surface
2.Triaxial Shear Test
Soil sample at
failure
Failure plane
Porous
stone
impervious
membrane
Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)
O-ring
pedestal
Perspex
cell
Cell pressure
Back pressure
Pore pressure or
volume change
Water
Soil
sample
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)
Sampling tubes
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)
Edges of the sample are
carefully trimmed
Setting up the sample in the
triaxial cell
Triaxial Shear Test
Sample is covered with a
rubber membrane and sealed
Cell is completely filled
with water
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)
Proving ring to
measure the
deviator load
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement
In some tests
Types of Triaxial Tests
Is the drainage valve open?
yes
no
Consolidated
sample
Unconsolidated
sample
Is the drainage valve open?
yes no
Drained
loading
Undrained
loading
Under all-around cell pressure o
c

o
c
o
c
o
c
o
c
Step 1
deviatoric stress
(Ao = q)
Shearing (loading)
Step 2
o
c
o
c
o
c
+ q
Deviator stress (q or Ao
d
) = o
1
o
3
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
o
1
= o
VC
+ Ao
o
3
= o
hC

CD tests
How to determine strength parameters c and |
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

A
o
d

Axial strain
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

t

o or o
|
Mohr Coulomb
failure envelope
(Ao
d
)
fa
Confining stress = o
3a
(Ao
d
)
fb
Confining stress = o
3b
(Ao
d
)
fc
Confining stress = o
3c
o
3c
o
1c
o
3a
o
1a
(Ao
d
)
fa
o
3b
o
1b
(Ao
d
)
fb
o
1
= o
3
+ (Ao
d
)
f

o
3

CD tests
Strength parameters c and | obtained from CD tests
Since u = 0 in CD
tests, o = o
Therefore, c = c
and | = |
c
d
and |
d
are used to
denote them
CD tests Failure envelopes
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

t

o or o
|
d
Mohr Coulomb
failure envelope
o
3a
o
1a
(Ao
d
)
fa
For sand and NC Clay, c
d
= 0
Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine |
d
of sand
or NC clay
CD tests Failure envelopes
For OC Clay, c
d
0
NC clay, c
d
=0

t

o or o
|

o
3
o
1
(Ao
d
)
f
c
o
c
OC
NC
3.Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)
o
1
= o
VC
+ Ao
o
3
= 0
Confining pressure is zero in the UC test
Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)
o
1
= o
VC
+ Aof
o
3
= 0
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

t

Normal stress, o
q
u
Note: Theoritically q
u
= c
u
, However in the actual case q
u
< c
u
due
to premature failure of the sample

Assignment #1

Due date:- @ Next Class

In-situ/ Field Tests/ shear tests

Vane shear test
Cone penetration test
Standard penetration test
1. Vane shear test
In soft and saturated clays, where undisturbed
specimen is difficult to obtain, the undrained shear
strength is measured using a shear vane test.
A diagrammatic view of the shear vane apparatus is
shown in Fig. below.
It consists of four thin metal blades welded
orthogonally (90
0
) to a rod where the height H is twice
the diameter D. Commonly used diameters are 38, 50
and 75 mm.

PLAN VIEW
1.Vane shear test
This is one of the most versatile and widely used devices used for investigating
undrained shear strength (S
u
) and sensitivity of soft clays
Bore hole (diameter
= D
B
)
h > 3D
B
)
Vane
D
H
Applied
Torque, T
Vane T
Rupture
surface
Disturbed
soil
Rate of rotation : 6
0
12
0
per minute
Test can be conducted at 0.5 m vertical
intervals
Vane shear test
Since the test is very fast,
Unconsolidated Undrained (UU)
can be expected
Su
Su
h
After the initial test, vane can be rapidly
rotated through several revolutions until the
clay become remoulded
t
peak
t
ultimate
t
Shear displacement
Stength Ultimate
Stength Peak
y Sensitivit


=
Some important facts on vane shear test
Insertion of vane into soft clays
and silts disrupts the natural soil
structure around the vane causing
reduction of shear strength

The above reduction is
partially regained after
some time

C
u
as determined by vane
shear test may be a
function of the rate of
angular rotation of the
vane

Correction for the strength parameters obtained from
vane shear test
Bjerrum (1974) has shown that as the plasticity of soils
increases, s
u
obtained by vane shear tests may give unsafe
results for foundation design. Therefore, he proposed the
following correction.

Su(design)
= Su
(vane shear)
Where, = correction factor = 1.7 0.54 log (PI)
PI = Plasticity Index
Contd
The maximum torque is measured by a
suitable instrument and equals to the moment
of the mobilized shear stress about the central
axis of the apparatus. The undrained shear
strength is calculated from
) 6 / 2 / (
2
D H D
T
S
u
+
=
t
2. Static Cone Penetrometer test
Static Cone Penetrometer test
Force required for the inner rod to push the tip (F
c
) and the total
force required to push both the tip and the sleeve (F
c
+ F
s
) will be
measured
Point resistance (q
c
) = F
c
/ area of the tip
Sleeve resistance (q
s
) = F
s
/ area of the sleeve in contact with soil
Friction Ratio (f
r
) = q
s
/ q
c
100 (%)
Various correlations have been developed to determine soil
strength parameters (c, |, ect) from f
r
Standard Penetration Test, SPT
SPT is the most widely used test procedure to determine the
properties of in-situ soils

63.5 kg
0.76 m
Drill rod
0.15 m
0.15 m
0.15 m
Number of blows = N
1
Number of blows = N
2
Number of blows = N
3
Standard penetration resistance (SPT N) = N
2
+ N
3
Number of blows for the first 150 mm
penetration is disregarded due to the
disturbance likely to exist at the bottom of the
drill hole
The test can be conducted at every 1m vertical
intervals
Various correlations have been developed to determine soil
strength parameters (c, |, ect) from N

Standard Penetration Test, SPT
SPT (Manual operation)
Fig. Common In-Situ Tests for Geotechnical Site Characterization of Soils.
Summary of chapter one

Discuss shear strength parameters of soils.
What is the reason in case of soil that
geotechnical structures such as shallow
foundation, pile foundation, retaining walls,
embankment dam and etc are failed?
What is difference between positive pore water
pressure and negative pore water pressure?
Describe the method used to determine shear
strength parameters of soils.

#2 assignment
1. Write short note on difference of laboratory
test and in-situ test for shear strength of soils,
and give your reason which is important/
better/ from both of tests method.