Nuclear Chemistry

Radioactivity

Emission of subatomic particles or highenergy electromagnetic radiation by nuclei Such atoms/isotopes said to be radioactive

Its discovery

Discovered in 1896 by Becquerel Called strange, new emission uranic rays Cuz emitted from uranium Marie Curie & hubby discovered two new elements, both of which emitted uranic rays

Polonium & Radium

Uranic rays became radioactivity

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Types of radioactivity

Rutherford and Curie found that emissions produced by nuclei Different types:

Alpha decay Beta decay Gamma ray emission

Isotopic symbolism

Lets briefly go over it Proton = 11p Neutron = 10n Electron = 0-1e

Types of decay: alpha decay

Alpha () particle: helium-4 bereft of 2e= 42He Parent nuclide daughter nuclide + He-4 238 U 234 Th + 4 He 92 90 2 Daughter nuclide = parent nuclide atomic # minus 2 Sum of atomic #s & mass #s must be = on both sides of nuclear equation!

Alpha decay

Has largest ionizing power = ability to ionize molecules & atoms due to largeness of -particle But has lowest penetrating power = ability to penetrate matter Skin, even air, protect against -particle radiation
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Beta decay

Beta () particle = eHow does nucleus emit an e-? neutron changes into proton & emits e 10n 11p + 0-1e Daughter nuclide = parent nuclide atomic number plus 1 137 Cs 137 Ba + 0 e55 56 -1
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Beta decay

Lower ionizing power than alpha particle But higher penetration power Requires sheet of metal or thick piece of wood to arrest penetration more damage outside of body, but less in (alpha particle is opposite)

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Gamma ray emission

Electromagnetic radiation High-energy photons 0 0 No charge, no mass Usually emitted in conjunction with other radiation types Lowest ionizing power, highest penetrating power requires several inches lead shielding

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Problems
Write a nuclear equation for each of the following: 1. beta decay in Bk-249 2. alpha decay of Ra-224

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Cont.

In determining nuclear stability, ratio of neutrons to protons (N/Z) important Notice lower part of valley (N/Z = 1) Bi last stable (nonradioactive) isotopes N/Z too high: above valley, too many n, convert n to p, beta-decay N/Z too low: below valley, too many p, convert p to n

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Magic numbers

Actual # of n & p affects nuclear stability Even #s of both n & p give stability Similar to noble gas electron configurations: 2, 10, 18, 36, etc. Since nucleons (= n+p) occupy energy levels within nucleus N or Z = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and N = 126 Magic numbers

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Radioactive decay series

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Detecting radioactivity

Particles detected through interactions w/atoms or molecules Simplest film-badge dosimeter Photographic film in small case, pinned to clothing Monitors exposure Greater exposure of film greater exposure to radioactivity
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Geiger counter

Emitted particles pass through Ar-filled chamber Create trail of ionized Ar atoms Induced electric signal detected on meter and then clicks Each click = particle passing through gas chamber

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Radioactive decay kinetics

Half-life = time taken for of parent nuclides to decay to daughter nuclides

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Radiometric dating: radiocarbon dating

Devised in 1949 by Libby at U of Chicago Age of artifacts, etc., revealed by presence of C-14 C-14 formed in upper atmosphere via: 14 N + 1 n 14 C + 1 H 7 0 6 1 C-14 then decays back to N by emission: 14 C 14 N + 0 e; t 6 7 -1 1/2 = 5730 years

Approximately constant supply of C14 Taken up by plants via 14CO2 & later incorporated in animals Living organisms have same ratio of C-14:C-12 Once dead, no longer incorporating C-14 ratio decreases 5% deviation due to variance of atmospheric C-14 Bristlecone pine used to calibrate data Carbon-dating good for 50,000 years

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Radiometric dating: uranium/lead dating

Relies on ratio of U-238:Pb-206 w/in igneous rocks (rocks of volcanic origin) Measures time that has passed since rock solidified t1/2 = 4.5 x 109 years For ex, if rock contains equal amts of isotopes above, it would be 4.5 billion years old

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Fission

Meitner, Strassmann, and Hahn discovered fission: splitting of uranium-235 Instead of making heavier elements, created a Ba and Kr isotope plus 3 neutrons and a lot of energy Sample rich in U-235 could create a chain rxn To make a bomb, however, need critical mass = enough mass of U-235 to produce a self-sustaining rxn

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Nuclear power

In America, about 20% electricity generated by nuclear fission Imagine:

Nuclear-powered car Fuel = pencil-sized U-cylinder Energy = 1000 20-gallon tanks of gasoline Refuel every 1000 weeks (about 20 years)

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Nuclear power plant

Controlled fission through U fuel rods (3.5% U-235) Rods absorb neutrons Retractable Heat boils water, making steam, turning turbine on generator to make electricity

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Comparing

Typical nuclear power plant makes enough E for city of 1,000,000 ppl and uses about 50 kg of fuel/day No air pollution/greenhouses gases But, nuclear meltdown (overheating of nuclear core) Also, waste disposal: location, containment problems?
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Comparing

OTOH, coal-burning power plant uses about 2,000,000 kg of fuel to make same amt of E But, releases huge amts of SO2, NO2, CO2

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Fusion

H-bonds utilize fusion (but needs high-temps to react cuz both positively charged) As does the sun: 21H + 3 H 4 He + 1 n 1 2 0 10 x more energy/gram than fission

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Transmutation

Transforming one element into another In 1919, Rutherford bombarded N-17 to make O-17 The Joliot-Curies bombarded Al-27 to form P-30 In 30s, devices needed that could accelerate particles to high velocities: 1. linear accelerator 2. cyclotron

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Linear accelerator

Charged-particle accelerated in evacuated tube Alternating current causes particle to be pulled into next tube Continues, allowing velocity = 90% speed of light! 2 miles long

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Cyclotron

Similar alternating voltage used But applied btwn two semicircular halves of cyclotron Particle spirals due to magnets Hits target

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Radiation on life

3 divisions 1. acute radiation 2. Increased cancer risk 3. genetic effects

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The first

Quickly dividing cell at greatest risk: Intestinal lining Immune response cells Likelihood of death Depends on dose/ duration

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2nd

Cancer = uncontrolled cell growth leading to tumors Dose? Unknown Cancer is a murky illness

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3rd

Causes genetic defects teratogenic

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Average American 360 mrem/yr

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Good site

http://www.deq.idaho.gov/inl_oversight/radiati on/radiation_guide.cfm

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Lets try the handout

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More facts

20 rem decreased white blood cell count after instantaneous exposure 100-400 rem vomiting, diarrhea, lesions, cancer-risk increase 500-1000 death w/in 2 months 1000-2000 death w/in 2 weeks Above 2000 death w/in hours

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Diagnostic and therapeutic radiation

Radiotracer = radioactive nuclide in brew to track movement of brew in body Tc-99 bones I-131 thyroid Tl-201 heart F-18 heart, brain P-31 tumors
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PET

Positron emission tomography Shows both rate of glucose metabolism and structural features of imaged organ F-18 emits positrons Positron and e- produce two gamma rays Rays detected Imaged
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Radiotherapy

Using radiation to treat cancer Develop symptoms of radiation sickness: vomiting, diarrhea, skin burns, hair loss

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Other applications

Irradiating foods Nuking bugs like fruit flies and screw-worm flies

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