MECHANICS OF

MATERIALS
Third Edition
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf

Lecture Notes:
J. Walt Oler
Texas Tech University
CHAPTER
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7
Transformations of
Stress and Strain
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7 - 2
Transformations of Stress and Strain
Introduction
Transformation of Plane Stress
Principal Stresses
Maximum Shearing Stress
Example 7.01
Sample Problem 7.1
Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress
Example 7.02
Sample Problem 7.2
General State of Stress
Application of Mohrs Circle to the Three- Dimensional Analysis of Stress
Yield Criteria for Ductile Materials Under Plane Stress
Fracture Criteria for Brittle Materials Under Plane Stress
Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
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7 - 3
Introduction
The most general state of stress at a point may
be represented by 6 components,
) , , : (Note
stresses shearing , ,
stresses normal , ,
xz zx zy yz yx xy
zx yz xy
z y x
t t t t t t
t t t
o o o
= = =
Same state of stress is represented by a
different set of components if axes are rotated.
The first part of the chapter is concerned with
how the components of stress are transformed
under a rotation of the coordinate axes. The
second part of the chapter is devoted to a
similar analysis of the transformation of the
components of strain.
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7 - 4
Introduction
Plane Stress - state of stress in which two faces of
the cubic element are free of stress. For the
illustrated example, the state of stress is defined by
. 0 , , and
xy
= = =
zy zx z y x
t t o t o o
State of plane stress occurs in a thin plate subjected
to forces acting in the midplane of the plate.
State of plane stress also occurs on the free surface
of a structural element or machine component, i.e.,
at any point of the surface not subjected to an
external force.
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7 - 5
Transformation of Plane Stress
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) u u t u u o
u u t u u o t
u u t u u o
u u t u u o o
sin sin cos sin
cos cos sin cos 0
cos sin sin sin
sin cos cos cos 0
A A
A A A F
A A
A A A F
xy y
xy x y x y
xy y
xy x x x
A + A
A A + A = =
A A
A A A = =

' ' '

' '
Consider the conditions for equilibrium of a
prismatic element with faces perpendicular to
the x, y, and x axes.
u t u
o o
t
u t u
o o o o
o
u t u
o o o o
o
2 cos 2 sin
2
2 sin 2 cos
2 2
2 sin 2 cos
2 2
xy
y x
y x
xy
y x y x
y
xy
y x y x
x
+

+
=
+

+
+
=
' '
'
'
The equations may be rewritten to yield
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7 - 6
Principal Stresses
The previous equations are combined to
yield parametric equations for a circle,
( )
2
2
2 2 2
2 2
where
xy
y x y x
ave
y x ave x
R
R
t
o o o o
o
t o o
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
+
=
= +
' ' '
Principal stresses occur on the principal
planes of stress with zero shearing stresses.
o
2
2
min max,
90 by separated angles two defines : Note
2
2 tan
2 2
y x
xy
p
xy
y x y x
o o
t
u
t
o o o o
o

=
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
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7 - 7
Maximum Shearing Stress
Maximum shearing stress occurs for
ave x
o o =
'
2
45 by from offset
and 90 by separated angles two defines : Note
2
2 tan
2
o
o
2
2
max
y x
ave
p
xy
y x
s
xy
y x
R
o o
o o
u
t
o o
u
t
o o
t
+
= = '

=
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

= =
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7 - 8
Example 7.01
For the state of plane stress shown,
determine (a) the principal panes,
(b) the principal stresses, (c) the
maximum shearing stress and the
corresponding normal stress.
SOLUTION:
Find the element orientation for the principal
stresses from
y x
xy
p
o o
t
u

=
2
2 tan
Determine the principal stresses from
2
2
min max,
2 2
xy
y x y x
t
o o o o
o +
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
Calculate the maximum shearing stress with
2
2
max
2
xy
y x
t
o o
t +
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2
y x
o o
o
+
= '
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7 - 9
Example 7.01
SOLUTION:
Find the element orientation for the principal
stresses from
( )
( )
=
=

+
=

=
1 . 233 , 1 . 53 2
333 . 1
10 50
40 2
2
2 tan
p
y x
xy
p
u
o o
t
u
= 6 . 116 , 6 . 26
p
u
Determine the principal stresses from
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2
min max,
40 30 20
2 2
+ =
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
xy
y x y x
t
o o o o
o
MPa 30
MPa 70
min
max
=
=
o
o
MPa 10
MPa 40 MPa 50
=
+ = + =
x
xy x
o
t o
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7 - 10
Example 7.01
MPa 10
MPa 40 MPa 50
=
+ = + =
x
xy x
o
t o
2
10 50
2

=
+
= = '
y x
ave
o o
o o
The corresponding normal stress is
MPa 20 = ' o
Calculate the maximum shearing stress with
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2
max
40 30
2
+ =
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
xy
y x
t
o o
t
MPa 50
max
= t
45 =
p s
u u
= 6 . 71 , 4 . 18
s
u
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7 - 11
Sample Problem 7.1
A single horizontal force P of 150 lb
magnitude is applied to end D of lever
ABD. Determine (a) the normal and
shearing stresses on an element at point
H having sides parallel to the x and y
axes, (b) the principal planes and
principal stresses at the point H.
SOLUTION:
Determine an equivalent force-couple
system at the center of the transverse
section passing through H.
Evaluate the normal and shearing stresses
at H.
Determine the principal planes and
calculate the principal stresses.
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7 - 12
Sample Problem 7.1
SOLUTION:
Determine an equivalent force-couple
system at the center of the transverse
section passing through H.
( )( )
( )( ) in kip 5 . 1 in 10 lb 150
in kip 7 . 2 in 18 lb 150
lb 150
= =
= =
=
x
M
T
P
Evaluate the normal and shearing stresses
at H.
( )( )
( )
( )( )
( )
4
2
1
4
4
1
in 6 . 0
in 6 . 0 in kip 7 . 2
in 6 . 0
in 6 . 0 in kip 5 . 1
t
t
t
o

+ = + =

+ = + =
J
Tc
I
Mc
xy
y
ksi 96 . 7 ksi 84 . 8 0 + = + = =
y y x
t o o
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7 - 13
Sample Problem 7.1
Determine the principal planes and
calculate the principal stresses.
( )
=
=

=
119 , 0 . 61 2
8 . 1
84 . 8 0
96 . 7 2
2
2 tan
p
y x
xy
p
u
o o
t
u
= 5 . 59 , 5 . 30
p
u
( )
2
2
2
2
min max,
96 . 7
2
84 . 8 0
2
84 . 8 0
2 2
+
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
xy
y x y x
t
o o o o
o
ksi 68 . 4
ksi 52 . 13
min
max
=
+ =
o
o
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7 - 14
Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress
With the physical significance of Mohrs circle
for plane stress established, it may be applied
with simple geometric considerations. Critical
values are estimated graphically or calculated.
For a known state of plane stress
plot the points X and Y and construct the
circle centered at C.
xy y x
t o o , ,
2
2
2 2
xy
y x y x
ave
R t
o o o o
o +
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
+
=
The principal stresses are obtained at A and B.
y x
xy
p
ave
R
o o
t
u
o o

=
=
2
2 tan
min max,
The direction of rotation of Ox to Oa is
the same as CX to CA.
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7 - 15
Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress
With Mohrs circle uniquely defined, the state
of stress at other axes orientations may be
depicted.
For the state of stress at an angle u with
respect to the xy axes, construct a new
diameter XY at an angle 2u with respect to
XY.
Normal and shear stresses are obtained
from the coordinates XY.
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7 - 16
Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress
Mohrs circle for centric axial loading:
0 , = = =
xy y x
A
P
t o o
A
P
xy y x
2
= = = t o o
Mohrs circle for torsional loading:
J
Tc
xy y x
= = = t o o 0 0 = = =
xy y x
J
Tc
t o o
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7 - 17
Example 7.02
For the state of plane stress shown,
(a) construct Mohrs circle, determine
(b) the principal planes, (c) the
principal stresses, (d) the maximum
shearing stress and the corresponding
normal stress.
SOLUTION:
Construction of Mohrs circle
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) MPa 50 40 30
MPa 40 MPa 30 20 50
MPa 20
2
10 50
2
2 2
= + = =
= = =
=
+
=
+
=
CX R
FX CF
y x
ave
o o
o
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7 - 18
Example 7.02
Principal planes and stresses
50 20
max
+ = + = = CA OC OA o
MPa 70
max
= o
50 20
max
= = = BC OC OB o
MPa 30
max
= o
=
= =
1 . 53 2
30
40
2 tan
p
p
CP
FX
u
u
= 6 . 26
p
u
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7 - 19
Example 7.02
Maximum shear stress
+ = 45
p s
u u
= 6 . 71
s
u
R =
max
t
MPa 50
max
= t
ave
o o = '
MPa 20 = ' o
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7 - 20
Sample Problem 7.2
For the state of stress shown,
determine (a) the principal planes
and the principal stresses, (b) the
stress components exerted on the
element obtained by rotating the
given element counterclockwise
through 30 degrees.
SOLUTION:
Construct Mohrs circle
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) MPa 52 48 20
MPa 80
2
60 100
2
2 2 2 2
= + = + =
=
+
=
+
=
FX CF R
y x
ave
o o
o
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7 - 21
Sample Problem 7.2
Principal planes and stresses
=
= = =
4 . 67 2
4 . 2
20
48
2 tan
p
p
CF
XF
u
u
clockwise 7 . 33 =
p
u
52 80
max
+ =
+ = = CA OC OA o
52 80
max
=
= = BC OC OA o
MPa 132
max
+ = o MPa 28
min
+ = o
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7 - 22
Sample Problem 7.2
= ' =
+ = + = =
= = =
= =
' '
'
'
6 . 52 sin 52
6 . 52 cos 52 80
6 . 52 cos 52 80
6 . 52 4 . 67 60 180
X K
CL OC OL
KC OC OK
y x
y
x
t
o
o
|
Stress components after rotation by 30
o

Points X and Y on Mohrs circle that
correspond to stress components on the
rotated element are obtained by rotating
XY counterclockwise through = 60 2u
MPa 3 . 41
MPa 6 . 111
MPa 4 . 48
=
+ =
+ =
' '
'
'
y x
y
x
t
o
o
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7 - 23
State of stress at Q defined by:
zx yz xy z y x
t t t o o o , , , , ,
General State of Stress
Consider the general 3D state of stress at a point and
the transformation of stress from element rotation
Consider tetrahedron with face perpendicular to the
line QN with direction cosines:
z y x
, ,
The requirement leads to,

= 0
n
F
x z zx z y yz y x xy
z z y y x x n
t t t
o o o o
2 2 2
2 2 2
+ + +
+ + =
Form of equation guarantees that an element
orientation can be found such that
2 2 2
c c b b a a n
o o o o + + =
These are the principal axes and principal planes
and the normal stresses are the principal stresses.
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7 - 24
Application of Mohrs Circle to the Three-
Dimensional Analysis of Stress
Transformation of stress for an element
rotated around a principal axis may be
represented by Mohrs circle.
The three circles represent the
normal and shearing stresses for
rotation around each principal axis.
Points A, B, and C represent the
principal stresses on the principal planes
(shearing stress is zero)
min max max
2
1
o o t =
Radius of the largest circle yields the
maximum shearing stress.
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7 - 25
Application of Mohrs Circle to the Three-
Dimensional Analysis of Stress
In the case of plane stress, the axis
perpendicular to the plane of stress is a
principal axis (shearing stress equal zero).
b) the maximum shearing stress for the
element is equal to the maximum in-
plane shearing stress
a) the corresponding principal stresses
are the maximum and minimum
normal stresses for the element
If the points A and B (representing the
principal planes) are on opposite sides of
the origin, then
c) planes of maximum shearing stress
are at 45
o
to the principal planes.
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7 - 26
Application of Mohrs Circle to the Three-
Dimensional Analysis of Stress
If A and B are on the same side of the
origin (i.e., have the same sign), then
c) planes of maximum shearing stress are
at 45 degrees to the plane of stress
b) maximum shearing stress for the
element is equal to half of the
maximum stress
a) the circle defining o
max
, o
min
, and
t
max
for the element is not the circle
corresponding to transformations within
the plane of stress
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7 - 27
Yield Criteria for Ductile Materials Under Plane Stress
Failure of a machine component
subjected to uniaxial stress is directly
predicted from an equivalent tensile test
Failure of a machine component
subjected to plane stress cannot be
directly predicted from the uniaxial state
of stress in a tensile test specimen
It is convenient to determine the
principal stresses and to base the failure
criteria on the corresponding biaxial
stress state
Failure criteria are based on the
mechanism of failure. Allows
comparison of the failure conditions for
a uniaxial stress test and biaxial
component loading
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7 - 28
Yield Criteria for Ductile Materials Under Plane Stress
Maximum shearing stress criteria:
Structural component is safe as long as the
maximum shearing stress is less than the
maximum shearing stress in a tensile test
specimen at yield, i.e.,
2
max
Y
Y
o
t t = <
For o
a
and o
b
with the same sign,
2 2
or
2
max
Y b a
o o o
t < =
For o
a
and o
b
with opposite signs,
2 2
max
Y b a
o o o
t <

=
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7 - 29
Yield Criteria for Ductile Materials Under Plane Stress
Maximum distortion energy criteria:
Structural component is safe as long as the
distortion energy per unit volume is less
than that occurring in a tensile test specimen
at yield.
( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
0 0
6
1
6
1
Y b b a a
Y Y b b a a
Y d
G G
u u
o o o o o
o o o o o o
< +
+ < +
<
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7 - 30
Fracture Criteria for Brittle Materials Under Plane Stress
Maximum normal stress criteria:
Structural component is safe as long as the
maximum normal stress is less than the
ultimate strength of a tensile test specimen.
U b
U a
o o
o o
<
<
Brittle materials fail suddenly through rupture
or fracture in a tensile test. The failure
condition is characterized by the ultimate
strength o
U
.
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7 - 31
Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Cylindrical vessel with principal stresses
o
1
= hoop stress
o
2
= longitudinal stress
( ) ( )
t
pr
x r p x t F
z
=
A A = =

1
1
2 2 0
o
o
Hoop stress:
( ) ( )
2 1
2
2
2
2
2
2 0
o o
o
t t o
=
=
= =

t
pr
r p rt F
x
Longitudinal stress:
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7 - 32
Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Points A and B correspond to hoop stress, o
1
,
and longitudinal stress, o
2

Maximum in-plane shearing stress:
t
pr
4 2
1
2 ) plane in max(
= =

o t
Maximum out-of-plane shearing stress
corresponds to a 45
o
rotation of the plane
stress element around a longitudinal axis
t
pr
2
2 max
= =o t
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7 - 33
Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Spherical pressure vessel:
t
pr
2
2 1
= =o o
Mohrs circle for in-plane
transformations reduces to a point
0
constant
plane) - max(in
2 1
=
= = =
t
o o o

Maximum out-of-plane shearing
stress
t
pr
4
1
2
1
max
= = o t
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7 - 34
Transformation of Plane Strain
Plane strain - deformations of the material
take place in parallel planes and are the
same in each of those planes.
Example: Consider a long bar subjected
to uniformly distributed transverse loads.
State of plane stress exists in any
transverse section not located too close to
the ends of the bar.
Plane strain occurs in a plate subjected
along its edges to a uniformly distributed
load and restrained from expanding or
contracting laterally by smooth, rigid and
fixed supports
( ) 0
: strain of components
x
= = =
zy zx z xy y
c c c
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Transformation of Plane Strain
State of strain at the point Q results in
different strain components with respect
to the xy and xy reference frames.
( )
( ) ( )
( )
y x OB xy
xy y x OB
xy y x
c c c
c c c c
u u u c u c u c
+ =
+ + = =
+ + =
2
45
cos sin sin cos
2
1
2 2
u

u
c c
u

u
c c c c
c
u

u
c c c c
c
2 cos
2
2 sin
2 2
2 sin
2
2 cos
2 2
2 sin
2
2 cos
2 2
xy y x y x
xy y x y x
y
xy y x y x
x
+

+
=
+

+
+
=
' '
'
'
Applying the trigonometric relations
used for the transformation of stress,
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Mohrs Circle for Plane Strain
The equations for the transformation of
plane strain are of the same form as the
equations for the transformation of plane
stress - Mohrs circle techniques apply.
Abscissa for the center C and radius R ,
2 2
2 2 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
+
=
xy y x y x
ave
R
c c c c
c
Principal axes of strain and principal strains,
R R
ave ave
y x
xy
p
= + =

=
c c c c
c c

u
min max
2 tan
( )
2 2
max
2
xy y x
R c c + = =
Maximum in-plane shearing strain,
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Three-Dimensional Analysis of Strain
Previously demonstrated that three principal
axes exist such that the perpendicular
element faces are free of shearing stresses.
By Hookes Law, it follows that the
shearing strains are zero as well and that
the principal planes of stress are also the
principal planes of strain.
Rotation about the principal axes may be
represented by Mohrs circles.
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Three-Dimensional Analysis of Strain
For the case of plane strain where the x and y
axes are in the plane of strain,
- the z axis is also a principal axis
- the corresponding principal normal strain
is represented by the point Z = 0 or the
origin.
If the points A and B lie on opposite sides
of the origin, the maximum shearing strain
is the maximum in-plane shearing strain, D
and E.
If the points A and B lie on the same side of
the origin, the maximum shearing strain is
out of the plane of strain and is represented
by the points D and E.
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7 - 39
Three-Dimensional Analysis of Strain
Consider the case of plane stress,
0 = = =
z b y a x
o o o o o
Corresponding normal strains,
( ) ( )
b a b a c
b a
b
b a
a
E
E E
E E
c c
v
v
o o
v
c
o o v
c
o v o
c
+

= + =
+ =
=
1
If B is located between A and C on the
Mohr-circle diagram, the maximum
shearing strain is equal to the diameter CA.
Strain perpendicular to the plane of stress
is not zero.
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7 - 40
Measurements of Strain: Strain Rosette
Strain gages indicate normal strain through
changes in resistance.
( )
y x OB xy
c c c + = 2
With a 45
o
rosette, c
x
and c
y
are measured
directly.
xy
is obtained indirectly with,
3 3 3
2
3
2
3
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
cos sin sin cos
cos sin sin cos
cos sin sin cos
u u u c u c c
u u u c u c c
u u u c u c c
xy y x
xy y x
xy y x
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
Normal and shearing strains may be
obtained from normal strains in any three
directions,