Introduction to DOS

Design of Structures

History of Structural Engineering

Why history is important?

One reason why history is important it that the past has value to our society. History is the narrative of mankind. History when presented properly lends itself to critical analysis.

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History of Structural Engineering

Greek and Egyptian Temples

Made of stone Employed beams and columns Many columns having little useful space between them

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Greek temple built 2500 years ago

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Greek temples of Poseidonia (now called Paestum) dating from the sixth century BC. Department of Civil Engineering
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The Temple of Debod built in early 2nd century BC

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Egypt: Temples of Karnak built 2000 years ago

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History of Structural Engineering

Arch structures were discovered prior to Roman era. Roman Empire used arches extensively in construction.

Stone arches had span of 100 ft and more

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The Colosseum is one of Rome's most distinctive landmarks. Construction of this famous amphitheatre began in 72 AD.
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Arches

Aqueducts

Aqueduct at Segovia in eastern Spain

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The arch of Costantino built in 312 AD

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History of Structural Engineering

From A.D. 500 to A.D.1500, structures that were built continued to employ the stone arch as the major structural forms.

Gothic Cathedrals Roof was supported by flying buttresses

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Flying Buttress Cathedral from North East Chichester

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Flying Buttress Cathedral from South East Chichester

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History of Structural Engineering

Fifteenth and Sixteenth centuries are known as Renaissance.

Galileo (1564-1642) Concept of force and moments Robert Hooke (1635-1703) Law of linear behavior of materials Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Laws of motion Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) Buckling of columns Palladio introduced the use of truss
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GALILEO

ROBERT HOOKE

ISSAC NEWTON
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LEONHARD EULER

PALLADIO
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History of Structural Engineering

Modern Era

Introduction of Iron Industrial Revolution

First major structure built or iron was Severn River Bridge Coalbrookdale. Suspension bridges

Thomas Telfords Bridge over Menai Straits in Wales, Brunels Clifton Bridge in Bristol, Finleys Bridge over Merrimack River in Newburyport, Massachusetts.
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Iron bridge, a cast-iron arch bridge built in 1779 across the River Severn near Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, England
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Thomas Telford built the suspension bridge in the middle in 1826. They had to destroy some of the castle to anchor it to the rock.
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Isambard Kingdom Brunel designs the Clifton Suspension Bridge at Bristol. Two hundred feet above the River Avon, the bridge is 700 feet long.
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History of Structural Engineering

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Building - City - Country Burj Dubai, Dubai, UAE Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan Petronas Tower 1, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Petronas Tower 2, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Sears Tower, Chicago, USA Year 2008 2004 1998 1998 1974 Stories Height 189* 101 88 88 110 850m* 509m 452m 452m 442m

6.

Jin Mao Building, Shanghai, China

1999

88

421m
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Forms of Structures
Structural Forms

Cables

Arches

Trusses

Beams

Surfaces

Membranes
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Plates

Shells
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Cables

Cables stretch well and are light, so they are useful in large structures. They only take tension stresses. Cables can be crisscrossed and combined with surface materials to achieve light and large structures. Examples of this technique are Suncoast Dome and Georgia Dome in the United States
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Hanger Cable

Tower

Cable Anchorage

Road Way

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Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco

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Cables

Grace Memorial Bridge over the Cooper River

Between Charleston, South Carolina (USA) and Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, stands the Grace Memorial Bridge. Completed in 1929, the cantilever steel structure has a main span of 1050 ft., or 320 m. and a total length of 3.6 miles or 5.79 Kilometers. A parallel bridge, with a similar design but a shorter main span, was built in 1966. This allowed the old bridge to be converted to one-way traffic.
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Grace Memorial Bridge over the Cooper River

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Arches

An arch is a curved structure capable of spanning a space while supporting significant weight (e.g. a doorway in a stone wall). The arch is significant because, in theory at least, it provides a structure which eliminates tensile stresses in spanning an open space. All the forces are resolved into compressive stresses.
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Chinese Moon Bridge

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Made by Zhao1974 in Hebei Province, China. Built by the architect Li Chun from 595 to 605 AD. World's oldest fully-stone, open-spandrel, segmental arch bridge.
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Triangular Arch

Round Arch

Segmental Arch

Rampant Round Arch

Lancet Arch

Shoulder Flat Arch

Three-Foiled Cusped Arch

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Equilateral Pointed Arch

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Horseshoe Arch

Three-centered Arch

Elliptical Arch

Inflexed Arch

Ogee Arch

Reverse Ogee Arch

Tudor Arch

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Parabolic Arch

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Truss

In architecture and structural engineering, a truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight slender members whose ends are connected at joints. A plane truss is one where all the members and joints lie within a 2-dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and joints extending into 3 dimensions.
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Truss

All members are assumed in axial compression or tension. Members are joined with the help of frictionless pins. Loads are applied at joints only.

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Types of Trusses

Common Truss
It is characterized by its triangular shape. It is most often used for roof construction.

Flat Truss
It gets its name from its parallel top and bottom chords.

Truncated Truss
A combination of the two is a truncated truss.

It is often used for floor construction.

It is used in hip roof construction.

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Support structure under the Auckland Harbour Bridge.

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A Vierendeel bridge; note the lack of diagonal elements in the primary structure and the way bending loads are carried between Department of Civil Engineering 39 elements University of Engineering and
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Beams

A beam is a structural element that carries load primarily in bending (flexure). Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e. loads due to an earthquake or wind). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members.
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Beams

It requires only vertical supports at ends generally. It is a compact structure. Its disadvantage is that it sometimes uses materials less economically than other structural systems.

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Surfaces
Surfaces

Membranes

Plates

Shells

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Membranes

Thin sheets of material

Resist applied loads by tension. Examples are tents, sails, balloons etc

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Plates

Plates are flat surfaces that transfer loads by bending in a manner similar to beams.

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Shells

Shell is rigid surface that transfers loads in two directions. The primary difference between a plate and a shell is that the shell has curvature whereas the plate does not.

TWA Flight Center, John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York.

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Materials
Properties of Material

Strength

Deformation Characteristics

Comp. Tension Resist.

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Strengt h to weight ratio

Stiff

Elastic

Ductile

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Materials

Aggregates Steel Concrete Wood Aluminum Fiber Glass Composite Materials etc.
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Loads

Loads

Loads

Static Loads

Dynamic Loads

Dead

Live

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Loads

Building Live Loads

Bridge Live Loads

Live Loads

Earthquake Loads

Snow Loads

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Wind Loads

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Introduction to Analysis

Free Body Diagram

Simplified picture of the structure, isolated from its supports, on which are shown all the external forces that act on the structure. These forces include the applied loads and the reactions that the supports exert on structure.

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FREE BODY DIAGRAM

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Equations of Equilibrium

For complete static equilibrium in 2D, three requirements must be met: 1. External Horizontal forces balance (translation). 2. External Vertical forces balance (translation). 3. External Moments balance about any point (rotational).
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