Cognition: Cognitive Development Throughout The Lifespan

Cognition
Chapter 13
Cognitive Development Throughout the Lifespan
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 13
Introduction
lifespan approach to development
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The Lifespan Development of Memory

Memory in Infants
early research underestimated infants' memory abilities
Attention Patterns
Methodology - looking time own-race bias
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Memory in Infants
Attention Patterns
Sangrigoli and de Schonen
photos of White and Asian women's faces shown to White babies present one photo (either White or Asian woman) repeatedly until looking time decreases present pair of photosfamiliar/unfamiliar White women or familiar/unfamiliar Asian women
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Memory in Infants
Attention Patterns
Sangrigoli and de Schonen
looking time for unfamiliar White woman longer than familiar White woman no difference for familiar/unfamiliar Asian women Further questions?
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Memory in Infants
Recognizing Mother
visual recognition post-natal mother's voice - prenatal
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Memory in Infants
Conjugate Reinforcement
Carolyn Rovee-Collier and colleagues
nonverbal measures of memory conjugate reinforcement techniquemobile, ribbon, kicking baseline, spontaneous kicking acquisition phase number of kicks produced following delay
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Conjugate Reinforcement Technique
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Memory in Infants
Chapter 13

Memory in Infants
Conjugate Reinforcement
Carolyn Rovee-Collier and colleagues
(continued)
older infantspress lever to run train steady linear improvement during first 18 months of life context effects interference spacing effect levels of processing
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Memory in Children
Children's Working Memory
memory span 2y - 2, 9y - 6 three working memory components relationship to school performance
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Memory in Children
Children's Long-Term Memory
Good by 20 months
2 year-olds can recall events a few months old
excellent recognition but poor recall

Recall improves after about 9y
Myers and Perlmutter (1978)

object recognition and recall
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Memory in Children
1. Autobiographical memory and early childhood
childhood amnesia infant memory deferred imitation lack of well-organized sense of who they are difficulty encoding and retrieving reminders
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Memory in Children
2. Children's source monitoring
source monitoring Foley, Ratner and colleagues performing vs. imagining how it would feel vs. visualizing performing vs. watching another person perform a task
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Memory in Children
Children's Memory Strategies
memory strategies utilization deficiency 1. Rehearsal
not very effective, but can keep information in working memory 4- and 5-year-olds do not spontaneously use rehearsal can benefit from rehearsal if prompted
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Memory in Children
Children's Memory Strategies
2. Organizational strategies
categorizing and grouping Moely and colleagueschildren study pictures from four categories; younger children rarely rearrange into categories
3. Imagery
even 6-year-olds can be trained to use visual imagery effectively
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Memory in Children
Children's Eyewitness Testimony
Leichtman and Ceci"Sam Stone" study
control, stereotype, suggestion, and stereotype-plussuggestion groups children interviewed about Sam Stone 10 weeks after visit control group highly accurate children can provide valid eyewitness testimony if they do not receive misleading information, either before or after the target event
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Chapter 13

Memory in Children
age, stereotyping, and misleading suggestions all influence children's eyewitness testimony social factors reluctance to say "I don't know" change statements under cross-examination
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Individual Differences: Childrens Intelligence and Eyewitness Testimony
Henry and Gudjonsson (2007)
children with mental retardation vs. typically developing children older and younger children misleading questions
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Individual Differences: Childrens Intelligence and Eyewitness Testimony
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In Depth: Memory in Elderly People
stereotypes large individual differences complex developmental trends
Working Memory in Elderly People

nature of the task Stine and coauthors (1989)recall for spoken English
normal syntax/normal rate vs. random order/fast rate significant age difference for complicated, non-real-life task
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 13

Long-Term Memory in Elderly People
perform well on semantic memory tasks and easy, automatic tasks age differences on more complex tasks
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1. Prospective memory
simulated shopping task complete fewer tasks and make more errors perform more accurately when they have an environmental cue can even perform better than younger adults
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2. Implicit memory
Light and colleagues (1995) reading familiar letter sequence older and younger adults performed similarly
3. Explicit recognition memory

long-term recognition memory declines slowly or not at all
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4. Explicit recall memory
performance decreases slowly and age differences are more substantial Dunlosky and Hertzog (1998)pairs of unrelated words names, historical details, stories large individual differencesverbal ability, education Hasher and colleaguestime of day
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Explanations for Age Differences in Memory
changes in brain structures 1. Difficulty paying attention 2. Ineffective use of memory strategies 3. The contextual-cues hypothesis 4. Cognitive slowing
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The Lifespan Development of Metamemory

metacognition metamemory metacomprehension
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Metamemory in Children
Flavell theory of mindpeople's ideas on how their minds work and on their beliefs about other people's thoughts
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Children's Understanding of How Memory Works
small vs. large memory sets related vs. random words effectiveness of memory strategies
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Children's Awareness That Effort Is Necessary
young children do not appreciate the need for effort keep studying information they already know not accurate in judging what has been committed to memory don't realize that they need to make an effort to use a memory strategy naive ideas about the effort required for memorization

Children's Judgments About Their Memory Performance
younger children unrealistically optimistic Roebers and colleagues
memory for magic show confidence ratings
overconfidence
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Figure 13.5 Average Level of Confidence for Questions Answered Correctly and Questions Answered Incorrectly. (1 = Very Unsure; 5=Very Sure)
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Children's Metamemory: The Relationship Between Metamemory and Memory PerformanceSummary
1. Their metamemory is faulty; they do not realize that they need to make an effort to memorize, and they also do not realize how little they can remember. 2. They do not spontaneously use helpful memory strategies. 3. Relative to older children, their memory performance is poor.
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Is there a causal link? Metamemory
Strategy use Memory performance

some evidence that metamemory is related to strategy use extensive evidence that strategy use is related to memory performance moderate correlation between metamemory and memory performance

Metamemory in Elderly People
1. Beliefs about memory
younger and older adults share similar beliefs
2. Memory monitoring
equally skilled on some taskspredicting items they will recall, selecting most difficult items for further study, judging accuracy on general-knowledge questions, deciding whether an item is old or new overconfident on some tasksoverall performance on a test of memory for specific details about a recent event

Metamemory in Elderly People
3. Awareness of memory problems
problems with everyday memory some elderly people don't try to develop helpful memory strategies because they think that memory decline is inevitable memory self-efficacythe belief in one's own potential to perform well on memory tasks
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The Development of Language

Language in Infants
rate of acquisition vocabulary size creative language use
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Language in Infants
Speech Perception in Infancy
phonemes speech-sound categories across speakers Eimas and coauthors
habituation studies, sucking response dishabituation indicates perceiving difference between sounds
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Language in Infants
Speech Perception in Infancy
Werker and Teesdistinguishing sounds in other languages Kuhlrelearning lost distinctions language rhythms bilingual homes and language discrimination
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Language in Infants
Language Comprehension in Infancy
1. Recognizing important words
name, mommy, daddy
2. Discriminating between grammatical words and meaning words
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Language in Infants
3. Understanding the correspondence between sound and sight
emotional tone of spoken language Walker-Andrews recordings of either a happy voice or an angry voice side-by-side films of happy speaker and angry speaker infants watched the face that matched the emotion of the voice
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Language in Infants
4. Appreciating semantic concepts
Mandler and colleaguesconcepts about objects distinguishing between visually similar objects animate/inanimate objects "animal" vs. "vehicle" categories concepts become more refined
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Language in Infants
Language Production in Infancy
cooing babbling intentional communication
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Language in Infants
Adults' Language to Infants
child-directed speech motherese fathers adults typically use a different language style when speaking to infants and young children than when speaking to older people differences across language communities mothers who are depressed

Language in Children
Words
early words and concepts word production comprehension of words interrelationship of memory and language
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Words
fast mappingusing context to make a reasonable guess about a word's meaning
Heibeck and Markman (1987) series of paired objects familiar and unfamiliar terms
overextension underextension
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Morphology
morphemes morphology
pay greater attention to phrases with appropriate morphology create their own regular forms
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Morphology
overregularizationthe tendency to add the most customary morphemes to create new forms of irregular words
parallel distributed processing explanationlanguage system keeps tally of morpheme patterns; patterns of excitation within neural networks account for overregularization rule-and-memory theory (Marcus)children learn a general rule for past-tense verbs and also store in memory the past tenses for many irregular verbs

Syntax
combining words into sentences two-word utterances morphology and syntax active process using syntax cues
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Pragmatics
learning the social rules of language what to say, to whom, language styles, coordinating conversations
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Pragmatics
adapting language to the listener
Shatz and Gelman (1973) 4-year-olds speaking to 2-year-olds, 4-year-olds and adults 2-year olds speaking to infants
taking turns in conversation gestures of interest; listener responses
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Cognition: Cognitive Development Throughout The Lifespan

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Cognition

Cognitive Development Throughout the Lifespan

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

Conjugate Reinforcement Technique

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

excellent recognition but poor recall

Myers and Perlmutter (1978)

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

Children's Eyewitness Testimony

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

Individual Differences: Childrens Intelligence and Eyewitness Testimony

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Working Memory in Elderly People

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

3. Explicit recognition memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Memory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Metamemory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Metamemory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Metamemory

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin

The Lifespan Development of Metamemory