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Fundamentals of
Cementing Operations
Cementing Operation
Bottom Plug The red bottom plug has a shallow top, is made of rubber, and has a hollow core. It is used ahead of the cement slurry to prevent cement/drilling fluid contamination and to clean the casing wall of filter cake. After the bottom plug comes into contact with the float valve, sufficient pressure (150 to 350 psi) causes the top diaphragm to rupture, allowing the cement slurry to flow through it. Top Plug The black top plug has a deep cup on its top and has a solid, molded rubber core. It is dropped after the cement slurry has been pumped, to prevent contamination with the displacement fluid. The top plug also signals the end of displacement by forming a seal on top of the bottom plug, causing a pressure increase. The main functions of cement plugs are: Separate mud from cement Wipe the casing from mud before cement is pumped and then wipe casing from th cement film after the complete volume of cement is pumped. Prevent over-displacement of cement Give surface indication that cement placement is complete Allow the casing to be pressure tested
The most important functions of the initial or primary cement job are:
To support the casing string; To prevent the movement of fluids from one formation to another through the annulus; To protect the casing from corrosive fluids in the formations
The cement slurry is able to meet these requirements by providing adequate compressive strength and low permeability when the cement hardens. The critical factor in obtaining a satisfactory cement job is to place the cement completely around the casing to prevent channelling
Classification of Cement
There are several classes of cement API Class C3S C2S C3A C4AF CaSO Fineness approved by the % API. % The differences Sq cm/Gram % % % between the cements lie in the distribution A 53 24 8 8 3.5 1600-1900 of the five basic compounds, which are 1500-1900 B 44 32 5 12 2.9 used to make cement: 8C3S, 8 C2S, 4.1 C3A, 2000-2400 C 53 16 C4AF,E CaSO4. 26 D& 50 5 13 3.0 1200-1500
G H 52 52 27 25 3 5 12 12 3.2 3.3 1400-1600 1400-1600 Compounds (a)
Classes A and B: These cements are generally cheaper than other classes of cement and can only be used at shallow depths where there are no special requirements. Note: Class B has a higher resistance to sulphate than Class A Class C: This cement has a high C3S content and so produces a high early strength Classes D, E and F: These are known as retarded cements due to a coarser grind, or the inclusion of organic retarders (lignosulphonates). Their increased cost must be justified by their ability to work satisfactorily in deep wells at higher temperatures and pressures Class G and H: These are general purpose cements which are compatible with most additives and can be used over a wide range of temperature and pressure. Class G is the most common type of cement used in most areas. Class H has a coarser grind than Class G and gives better retarding properties in deeper wells
Pozmix cement - formed by mixing Portland cement with pozzolan (ground volcanic ash) and 2% bentonite. Very durable & less expensive than most other types; Gypsum cement - formed by mixing Portland cement with gypsum, giving a high early strength and can be used for remedial work. They expand on setting and deteriorate in the presence of water; Diesel oil cement - a mixture of one of the basic cement classes (A, B, G, H) with diesel oil or kerosene with a surfactant. They have unlimited setting times and will only set in the presence of water. Consequently they are often used to seal off water producing zones where they absorb and set to form a dense, hard cement
Mixwater Requirements
API Cement Classification
Following tabulated figures are based on: API Class Slurry Well Depth The need to have a Mixing that Wt. easily pumped; slurry is Water (a) A minimum amount of free water Gals/Sk Lbs/Gal Ft
A (Portland) 5.2 15.6 0-6000
Effects of reducing the amount of mixwater: B (Portland) 5.2 15.6 0-6000 80-170 Slurry(High Early) compressive strength, and viscosity will all C density, 6.3 14.8 0-6000 80-170 increase; D (Retarded) 4.3 16.4 6-10000 170-230 Pumpability will decrease; E (Retarded) 4.3 16.4 6-14000 170-290 Less F (Retarded) of slurry will be obtained from each sack of volume 4.3 16.4 10-16000 230-320 cement
G (Basic Calif) H (Basic Gulf Coast) 5.0 4.3 15.8 16.4 0-8000 0-8000 80-200 80-200
Compressive Strength Temperature deg F Pressure (psi) Typical compressive strength (psi) at 24 hours Class A & B Portland High early streng th class C 780 1,870 2,015 2,705 3,560 3,710 API clas sG API clas sH Retarded class D,E,F
Compressive Strength Temperature deg F 60 80 95 110 140 170 200 Pressure (psi) 0 0 800 1,600 3,000 3,000 3,000 2,870 4,130 4,670 5,840 6,550 6,210 Typical compressive strength (psi) at 72 hours 2,535 3,935 4,105 4,780 4.960 4,460 5,685 7,360 7,125 7,310 9,900 4,000 5,425 5,920
Properties of Dry Cement Class A and B (Portland) Specific gravity (average) Surface area (range), (sq cm / gm) Weight per sack (lb) Bulk volume (cu ft/sack) Absolute volume (gal / sk) 3.14 1,5001,900 94 1 3.6 High early strength class C 3.14 2,0002.800 94 1 3.6 Basic API class G 3.15 1,4001,700 94 1 3.58 Basic API class H 3.15 1,4001,700 94 1 3.58 Retarded class D,E,F 3.16 1,2001,600 94 1 3.57
Properties of Neat Slurries Water (gal/sack) (API) Slurry weight (lb/gal) Slurry volume (cu ft/sk) 5.19 15.6 1.18 6.32 14.8 1.33 4.97 15.8 1.14 4.29 16.5 1.05 4.29 16.5 1.05
Thickening Times Depth (ft) Static Temp deg F Circulating Temp deg F Portland High Pressure Thickening Time (hours:min)
Properties - Permeability
After the cement has hardened the permeability is very low (<0.1 millidarcy). This is much lower than most producing formations. However if the cement is disturbed during setting (e.g.. gas intrusion) higher permeability may occur (5-10 darcies).
Cement Additives
Most cement slurries will contain some additives to modify the properties of the slurry to produce a better cement job to suit particular requirements. Most additives are known by certain trade names used by various cement service companies. Additives used to: Vary the slurry density; Change the compressive strength; Accelerate or retard the setting time; Control filtration and fluid loss; Reduce slurry viscosity
Accelerators
These are added to shorten the time taken for the cement to set. WOC time is therefore reduced and less rig time is wasted. Accelerators are especially important in shallow wells where temperatures are low. In deeper wells the higher temperatures promote the setting process, and accelerators may not be necessary. The WOC time is usually based on the time taken for the cement to attain a compressive strength of 500 psi. Common types of accelerator used include: Calcium chloride (CaCI2) 1.5 - 2.0%; Sodium chloride (NaCl) 2.0 - 2.5%; Seawater
Retarders
In deep wells the higher temperatures will reduce the thickening time of the cement slurry and the cement becomes less pumpable. Retarders are used to prolong the thickening time and avoid the risk of the cement setting in the casing prematurely. The bottom hole temperature is the critical factor for the use of retarders. Above a static temperature of 260 - 275F the effect of retarders should be measured in pilot tests. Common types of retarders used include: Calcium lignospulphanate (sometimes with organic acids) 0.1 - 1.5%; Saturated Salt Solutions (eg, sea water)
Bentonite (2% -16%) This is by far the commonest type of additive used to lower slurry density. Bentonite absorbs water, and therefore allows more mixwater to be added. It will also however reduce compressive strength and sulphate resistance. The increased yield due to the bentonite added may be seen in cement tables Pozzolan This may be used in a 50% / 50% mix with the Portland cements. The result is a slight decrease in compressive strength, and increase sulphate resistance; Diatomaceous earth (10% - 40%) - the large surface area allows more water absorption, and produces low density slurries (down to 11 ppg)
Heavy Additives
These are used when cementing through overpressured zones
Common types of additive used include:
Barite (barium sulphate) This can be used to attain slurry densities of up to 18 ppg. It also causes a reduction in strength and pumpability;
Hematite (Fe203) - The high specific gravity of hematite can be used to raise slurry densities to 22 ppg. (Friction reducing additives may be required);
Sand graded sand (40-60 mesh) gives a 2 ppg increase in slurry density
Mud Contaminants
As well as the compounds deliberately added to the slurry on surface to improve the slurry properties, there will also be the effect of the mud downhole which comes into contact with the cement in the casing or in the annulus. The chemicals in the mud may react with the cement to give undesirable side effects. Some of these are listed below:
Effect on cement increases density reduces compressive strength acts as an accelerator decreases density act as retarders
Cement Excess