ANTHROPOLOGY & PUBLIC HEALTH

CONTENTS
Introduction Definition Branches in Anthropology
Linguistic anthropology Archeology Physical anthropology Cultural anthropology

Applied Anthropology
Public health aspects of anthropology

Conclusion References

Definition
[ANTHROPO + LOGY]
The science of human beings; especially: the study of human beings and their ancestors through time and space and in relation to physical character, environmental and social relations, and culture .
(Websters New World College Dictionary, 4th edition, 2001)

 Anthropology (from Greek: , anthropos, "human being"; and , logos, "speech" lit. to talk about human beings) is the study of humanity.

- Wikipedia

 According to Stedman's Medical Dictionary anthropology is "the branch of science which treats man in all his relations."

History
Anthropology has origins in the natural sciences, the humanities, and the social sciences. The term was first used by Franois Pron when discussing his encounters with Tasmanian Aborigines. Two major goals:
Understand uniqueness and diversity Discover fundamental similarities

Why do we need to study anthropology?

The universe is constructed from a multitude of various materials and interactions between these materials is dynamic in form and shape. To the human, however, in his need to establish his place and purpose in the universe, the most important material is biological and the most important process is evolution, far it is only here that the human can learn to understand himself, an understanding that is vital to his survival .

 Wise men, psychologists, philosophers and theologians have surmised and conjectured about the human over the centuries, and still do, but the truth - factual knowledge lies in a process called evolution. Many of the diseases and conditions which are seen today are the result of the complex interaction of man with his environment Hence to understand them and find a solution to these problems, a thorough knowledge of how man and diseases evolved is important.

.The human is what evolution made him

ANTHROPOLOGY IS A UNIQUE SOCIAL SCIENCE

Time Depth Global Focus Comparative Approach Holistic Four Field Approach Core Concept of Culture Globalization

Four-field Approach
Four subdisciplines bridge science and humanities:
Physical Anthropology Cultural Anthropology Archaeology Linguistics

Physical Anthropology

Primarily concerned with humans as a biological species Most closely related to natural sciences Major research areas:
Human evolution Modern human variation

Subdisciplines:
Palaeoanthropology, primatology, forensics, palaeopathology, human osteology, genetics

Cultural Anthropology
Synonyms: Social anthropology (UK), Ethnology. Examines contemporary societies and cultures throughout the world. This study involves both detail examinations of individual cultures, called ethnography, and the analysis and interpretation of the data to discern cultural patterns, called ethnology. Unique to Cultural Anthropology Ethnographic Fieldwork
Participant observation In-depth interviewing Long-term studies

Archaeology
Archaeologists seek out and examine the artifacts (material products) of past societies. Archaeology is not treasure-hunting. Subdisciplines of archaeology:
Prehistoric Historic Classical Biblical Underwater

Linguistic Anthropology
Subfield of anthropology, philosophy, and English Main research areas:
How language is used Relationship between language and culture How humans acquire language

Fields of linguistics:
Structural, historical, sociolinguistics

Holism and Applied Anthropology

Training in all four fields required Links to other social sciences
Sociology, psychology, economics, political science, history

Applied Anthropology
Sometimes called the 5th field Offers practical solutions to cultural problems

Linguistic Anthropology
is distinguished by its primary concern with unwritten languages (both prehistoric and modern), with variations within languages, and with the social uses of language.

Archaeology
is the study of the relationship between material culture that is, the artifacts and architecture people create and behavior. Studies human artifacts, structures, ceramics, worked stones, etc. to determine what a culture was like in the past. Four areas of Archaeology: Prehistoric archaeology Historic archaeology Bioarchaeology Cultural resource management

Prehistoric Archaeology
studies those societies that left no or very few written records. The Maya left written records in the form of hieroglyphics left on stellae commemorating the deeds of their kings and nobles.

 Archaeology sub-field No.2 Historic Archaeology examines sites of the more recent past for which there is recorded data. For example, Old Salem or Williamsburg

 A Third sub-field: Bioarchaeology is the field that attempts to identify and interpret biological remains from archaeological sites in terms of human usage, biogeography, and paleoecology.

 A fourth sub-field is Cultural Resource Management For example, the African Burial Ground Project, The Old Duke Homestead. Archaeologists also work for engineering firms, museums

Physical or Biological Anthropology

The oldest specialty - is the study of the human species, past and present, as a biological phenomenon.

Human 1350g
Chimpanzee 400g

Orangutan 400g Macaque 100g

 Biological anthropology, or physical anthropology is a branch of anthropology that studies the mechanisms of biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology, and the fossil record of human evolution.

 Developed in the 19th century, prior to the rise of Alfred Russel Wallace's and Charles Darwin's theories of natural selection and Gregor Mendel's work on genetics. Physical anthropology was so called because all of its data was physical (fossils, especially human bones). With the rise of Darwinian theory and the modern synthesis, anthropologists had access to new forms of data, and many began to call themselves "biological anthropologists."

Biological anthropologists in this field study:

Long-term changes in populations as they adapt to different environments. The human genome. Human variation from one region/society/culture to another. Changes in presence or absence of diseases. Tracking diseases across cultures. Examining cultural practices that affect adaptation.

 Physical anthropology has 5 sub-fields Human paleontology (paleoanthropology) Osteology and paleopathology Population genetics Forensic anthropology Primatology

Human Paleontology

Physical development of changes over time of human beings Basic unit of study: the fossil Concept of evolution Searching for the main ancestors on the hominid line and trying to find the linking relatives with other primates

Evolution:
Evolution is the process of gradual change over long periods of time. Evolution is a process in which the gene pool of a population gradually (over millions of years) changes in response to environmental pressures, natural selection, and genetic mutations. All forms of life came into being by this process. To evolve is to develop by the process of evolution, changing in some way as an adaptation to the environment.

Types of Evolution:
1.Micro evolution 2.Macro evolution Micro evolution: Goldschmidt [1940] The evolution which results from the interaction of the elemental forces of the evolution to produce relatively small changes in the population or populations. Emphasizes the fact that small mutations accumulate in a population to bring about small changes in it and account for evolution of races and sub-species.

 There are 4 main factors and 3 subsidiary factors that account for Micro-evolution: A] main factors: 1. Small mutations 2. Natural selection 3. Gene-flow or migration 4. Genetic drift B] Subsidiary factors: 5] Inbreeding 6] Isolation 7] Hybridization

 Micro-evolution has not ceased .? 1] Wisdom teeth of Man: In man appears at the age of 16-18 years. (last teeth ) Marks of the end of adolescence. But now a days do not appear even the early or late 20's being progressively lost due to microevolution, and the rate of this micro evolution is rather rapid considering the pace of the evolutionary history of the man. 2] Menarche in Female: The age of the menarchy - going down day-by-day. Many factors .. nutritional being most important. 3] Canines of man: Sharpness of canines .. decreasing day-by-day. Function of canines - tear the raw meat. Man ceased to function as a raw meat eater.

 Macro evolution : This concept states that the large mutations accumulate in a population to bring about the large changes in the population to account for evolution of species and the higher levels of taxa. There is a controversy whether the forces that cause micro evolutionary changes are sufficient to cause macro-evolutionary changes. Some vote in favour, others against. Those who vote in favour believe in gradualism ; others that vote against believe in Punchualism.

Theories of Evolution:
LAMARCKISM: Lamarck, a French evolutionist summarized his ideas about evolution in his book entitled Philosophique Zoologique Published in 1809. Though Lamark himself proposed no postulate or law, all his discussions in the book centre aroud 4 ideas which are: Postulate I : Theory of Elan vital or growth The internal forces of the life [elan vital] tend to increase the size of an organism by growth in organs and systems. Thus, the internal forces of life are capable of forming organs and systems.

 Postulate II: Theory of environmental pressure and spontaneous formation of genes. In other words, changes in environment initiates need or want in the individual and its internal forces direct formation of new organs to meet the changes in environment.

Postulate III : Theory of Use and Disuse. The development of organ is directly proportional to its use .i.e. continuous use strengthening the organ while disuse having reverse effect.
Postulate IV : Theory of inheritance of acquired characters. All the changes that organism acquire during the life-time are transmitted to the next generation.

Darwins theory of evolution: 1.Theory of Natural selection: This was conceived by Darwin during a voyage for five years [1831-36] on board the HMS Beagle, a vessel that had been commissioned to make oceanographic charts for the British army. The theory of natural selection as put forth by Darwin can be summed up into the following: a] Over production: this is matter of common observation that organisms lay eggs or give birth to young ones in much greater number than actually survive because a great number of offspring's are destroyed. b] Struggle for existence: Since population increase by geometrical ratio and food production by arithmetical ratio, it is thus natural that there ensures a struggle among them for existence. The struggle for existence can exist at intraspecific or interspecific level and also against environment.

c] variation individual variation - Sudden variation - Variations due to use and disuse - Hybrid variations d] Survival of the Fittest: Thus the struggle for existence only the fittest survive. Fitness of a group of populations decided on two criteria: - Capacity of adaptation and preadaptation -Differential reproduction.

II. Darwins theory of Artificial selection: According to Darwin, the commonest method of producing new race of individuals is that of selection under human control. Darwin conceived about this selection to act at two levels: a] Selection at the unconscious level b] Selection at the conscious level. III. Darwins theory of sexual selection: According to this theory, there is always a contest among males for possession of beautiful female. During this contest, inferior males are eliminated [due to their less courageous nature] and superior males dominate. Thus sexual dimorphism becomes marked in highly developed individuals.

 Publication of Darwin's work in 1859 and rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance in 1900 saw rise of genetic theory of evolution. Since 1920 and this divided the scientists into two camps: Pro-Lamarkians maintained that acquired characters are transmitted where as Pro-Darwinian's believed that it is the nature that selects the fittest among the existing variables and that acquired characters, unless they are genetic in origin, cannot be transmitted.

 Dental Anthropology: Dental Anthropology is the study of teeth in a perspective beyond clinical science. That perspective includes the study of dental growth, theories on dental origin, primate dentition, and population variation. The first comprehensive review of research on primate dentition was a 108-page treatise by Krogman in 1927. That document comprised an entire issue of the Journal of Dental Research and was the first step toward recognition of dental anthropology.

 Uses of Dental Anthropology: 1. Genetically controlled variables such as tooth crown size and morphology are used to trace phylogenetic relationships and historic trends in size, shape, and number of teeth. 2. Crown wear and dental pathology give clues to dietary and cultural behavior. 3. Gross and microscopic defect analyses reflect disease and dietary stress.

4. Intentional cultural modifications of teeth (dental scarification) reflect society and culture of people, both present and past 5. Bite marks, distinctive patterns of occlusion and wear, missing and filled teeth, and radiographic landmarks make teeth pivotal in many cases of forensic identification.
6. The comparative anatomy of teeth provides crucial evidence for systematics (classification) and determining biological relatedness.

CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Infraorder: Anthropoidea Super family: Hominoidea Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: Sapiens

Early Primates
Prosimians (65mya) Monkeys (35mya) Apes (23mya) Hominids (5mya)

Early Primates - Traits

Common physical primate traits: Dense hair or fur covering Warm-blooded Live young Suckle Infant dependence Common social primate traits: Social life Play Observation and imitation Pecking order
Common Primate Traits

Primate Family Tree

Crown lemur

Orangutan

Earliest primates - Prosmians

Tiny, unimpressive creatures, resembled rats. Coexisted with dinosaurs. Called pre-monkeys (65 mya). Ate insects. Out only at nights.. Life in trees, holding on & letting go.. Gradual evolution of versatile grasping and manipulating hand. Vision improved- night vision Expansion of tiny visual cortex of brain

Monkeys
35 mya Advancing primate. Rely more on vision, less on smell than ancestors. Eyes moved to front, stereoscopic vision. Colour vision developed marked expansion of brain cortex.

Apes
Same time monkeys were developing and proliferating in forests.. New form of primate evolved the apes. Earliest apes were small. Distinguished from monkeys by characteristic tooth pattern. Earliest human ancestor Aegyptopithecus (28 mya in tropical rain forests of Egypt) lived both on trees & ground. Fruit eater

Differences between Apes and Man

FEATURE Cranial capacity APES Small MODERN MAN Large

Facial skeleton
Orbital regions

Prognathic
Marked supra orbital ridge

Flat
Ridges frequently absent

Mandible

Square & Massive No chin shallow mandibular notch coronoid process tall than condyle

Gracile present Pronounced condyle tall

Dental arches Incisors

U shaped Large & Procumbent

Parabolic Small & Vertically inclined

Maxilla & Mandible

Canines

meet edge to edge

Large erupts late [sometimes after 3rd molar ] Max C & LI diastema Max PM 3 roots Mand I PM 3 Mand II PM 2 Mand I PM - unicuspid II molars largest Mand all molars 5 cusps Cusps pointed

overlap
Smaller Absent 1 root Max I PM 2 Fused roots Bicuspid I molars largest II & III 4 cusps Cusps rounded

Premolars

Molars

Miocene period (25 mya)

Downward shift in temperature.. Changes in tropical forest of Africa & Eurasia Lakes, seas divided forests. Apes larger and larger-brained. Fruit eaters. Hominoids (manlike primates) split here.

 Branching off of hominoid line new mode of adaptation Shift from trees to grasslands. Shift of diet from fruits seeds other vegetations. Major change in teeth, chewing apparatus and body adapted to ground life.

Propliopethicus (30 million years ago)

Proconsul,Dryopethicus

Propliopethicus (30 million years)

The oldest fossil regarded as ancestral to great apes & man

Shivopethicus, Ramapethicus

Australopithecus Proconsul
Shows a blend of primitive and advanced features.

Homohabalis

Dryopethicus
Skull - monkeys. Fore limb & foot ape-like.. incipient ability for brachiation. Jaw and dentition -humans.

Homoerectus

H.Neanderthal's

H.sapiens

End of Miocene and early Pliocene period (14 10 mya) 2 branches of primates.. 1. Large ground dwelling ape with massive jaws and cheek teeth but without large incisors and canines of living great apes gorilla, chimpanzees, orangutan.

2. Ancestral hominoid the Ramapethicus. Spread across Africa & S. Asia. Mostly human ancestor shape of palate V and small incisors and canine.. Due to eating grasses and other terrestrial food. Overhead arm swinging upright locomotion.

SPECIES
Ardipithicus ramidus
Australopithecus anamensis Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus africanus Australopithecus robustus Homo habilis Homo erectus Homo sapiens archaic Homo sapiens neandertalensis

TIME PERIOD
5 to 4 million years ago 4.2 to 3.9 million years ago 4 to 2.7 million years ago 3 to 2 million years ago 2.2 to 1.6 million years ago 2.2 to 1.6 million years ago 2.0 to 0.4 million years ago 400 to 200 thousand years ago 200 to 30 thousand years ago 200 thousand years ago to present

Homo sapiens sapiens

Australopithecus ramidus: The earliest fossil hominid - is a recent discovery. Dated at 4.4 million years ago. The remains are incomplete.. bipedal and about 4 feet tall. Other fossils were found with the ramidus fossil which would suggest that ramidus was a forest dweller. A new skeleton was recently discovered which is about 45% complete being studied.

AUSTRALOPITHECUS: (out of Africa) Earliest known hominid First one discovered by Raymond Dart in South Africa in 1924; called A.africanus, it dated from around 2 mya. Dart speculated that this organism represented an ancestor of humans; rejected by paleontologists who were not impressed by the small size and cranial capacity.

 Other australopithecines were later discovered for the same time period (around 2 mya) - A. robustus, A. boisei Large, herbivorous hominids with massive jaws and more specialized dentition. Efficient Bipeds Tools hunting of small animals - burrowing rodents & birds Diet collecting eggs, insects, reptiles, tortoise, young of nesting birds, rodents.

Homohabalis: Homo habilis

First definite hominine in the fossil record First hominid tool-user Discovered in 1960 by Louis Leakey in eastern Africa Distinctive stone tools (Oldowan culture) Probably coexisted with australopithecines that lived at the same time (around 2.0 mya) Bipedal, larger cranial capacity (700 cc) than australopithecines (500 cc), prognathic face, brow ridge. Also had some australopithecine characters (dentition, humerus/femur ratios, etc.) No speech

 Diet hunting larger animals including giraffe, hippopotamus, antelopes, elephants. Oldowan tools simple, chopping tools, roughly worked. Rocks used as missiles in hunting.

Homo erectus
Presumed to have evolved from H. habilis recognized from tools (Acheulean culture) Taller and larger cranial capacity. Migrated into Europe and Asia from Africa; Members of this species were first fossil humans found in the 19th century (called "missing links") Java Man Peking Man Originally called Pithecanthropus erectus Quick adaptation to environment without physical changes

 Culture is main reason H. erectus was so successful organization for hunting ability to protect against predators Use of fire - Cooked food apart from hunting. possible campsites warmth and protection. Built huts and windbreaks. Used animal hides for sitting and sleeping. Bowls for storing, collecting and cooking. Tools - Acheulean industry (hand axe)

Homo erectus changes over time Changes over a million years

Homo erectus
1891 - Eugene Dubois discovers H. erectus in Java Dubois calls it Pithecanthropus erectus initially, also dubbed Java Man Zhoukoudian, China 1930 named Sinanthropus pekinensis, or Peking Man. 1950, Ernst Mayr collapsed Sinanthropus and Paranthropus into H. Photograph of Nariokotome boy, an early Homo erectus erectus found near Lake Turkana, dates from 1.9 mya to 27,000 years ago. Kenya. 994 cc brain size (compare to 612 for H. habilis).

Homo erectus 1.9mya to 27k yBP

Why was H. erectus so successful? Less sexual dimorphism = possible pair bonds, marriage Less hair on body = wearing of furs, other clothing Wearing of furs = ability to live further north Division of labour

Distribution of H. erectus

Homo sapiens
Early Homo sapiens 400,000 to 200,000 BC Homo Neanderthalensis 200,000
-70,000 BC

Homo sapiens sapiens 130,000 present - Size of the brain evolved from [Australopiths] to 1450cc[ Modern man].

450

cc

Neanderthal man :

From 1,20,000 years ago to 30,000 years ago distinctive group of people, collectively called Neanderthals lived in Europe. Neanderthals were discovered in 1848 from Rock of Gibraltar but it went unnoticed. In 1856 Neanderthal skeleton was again discovered from Neanderthal valley in Germany. Hence they are named as Neanderthals. Used tools Mousterian tools

Features of Neanderthals:
They had cranial capacities approaching those of modern man, with certain features resembling H.erectus such as heavy eyebrow ridge and low cranium. A few characters such as forward projection of jaws etc were complete new acquisition. On the basis of anatomical similarities with modern man, they are included in the same species, though in separate sub-species .i.e Homo sapiens neanderthalensis. Their socio-cultural development had reached a stage when people attached values to individual and society and showed belief in supernatural.

What happened to Neandertals?

H. neanderthalensis coexisted with H. sapiens for at
least 20,000 years, perhaps as long as 60,000 years What happened? Neandertals interbred with H. sapiens Neandertals were killed off by H. sapiens H. sapiens drove Neandertals into extinction by competition

Homo sapiens Modern man

Modern 35,000 years ago to present
Anatomically modern Sometimes called Homo sapiens sapiens

Cro-Magnon Man
Cro-Magnon humans 35,000 years ago in western Europe to 17,000 years ago. 1,600 cc cranial capacity Name comes from a hotel in France Not a different species, just old Homo sapiens from Europe

Artists reconstruction of a Cro-Magnon man

Archaic H. sapiens Culture

Art Traces of art found in beads, carvings, and paintings Cave paintings in Spain and southern France showed a marked degree of skill Female figurines 27,000 to 22,000 years ago. Called venuses, these figurines depicted women. Perhaps it was an example of an ideal type, or perhaps an expression of a desire for fertility

Cave paintings from 20,000 years ago at Vallon-Pont-dArc in southern France (left) and from Lascaux, in southwest France

Cave paintings
Mostly animals on bare walls Subjects were animals favored for their meat and skins Human figures were rarely drawn due to taboos and fears that it would somehow harm others

Upper Palaeolithic Hotbed of Culture

40 10k yBP Shelters 15,000 yBP Ukraine Some made with mammoth bones Wood, leather working; carpentry
Straw Hut

Mammoth bone hut

Tool progression Tools From cores to blades Specialization Composite tools Bow and arrow Domestication of dogs Gathering rather than hunting became the mainstay of human economies.

Homo Sapiens
Regional-Continuity Model (Milford Wolpoff, UMich) Humans evolved more or less simultaneously across the entire Old World from several ancestral populations. Rapid-Replacement Model (Chris Stringer, NHM London) Humans evolved only once--in Africa from H. heidelbergensis ancestors--and then migrated throughout the Old World, replacing their archaic predecessors. Also called the Out of Africa and Killer Ape hypothesis.

Social Organization
Hunter-gatherer analogy
Small group, low population density, nomadism, kinship groups

Migration
North America was the last colonized by hominids. Beringia (land bridge) between Russia and Alaska Asian origin of Native Americans 30,000 to 12,000 years ago was first migration

Human Variation
Modern humans vary in skin color, hair color, and eye color. There are all sorts of differences amongst humans, and we are all aware that people vary in facial and body features. We also know that these differences extend to the genetic materials themselves. Indeed, there are parts of the human genome that are so hypervariable that examination of these specific locales can identify specific individuals with a 1 in 88,000 chance of mistaking one person with another.

But!!: The BIG question: is this individual or population variation?

All humans vary (except for identical twins, but that is a specific case, and usually by adulthood, there are differences resulting from environmental influences). This variation is the result of the complex interaction of both genetic and environmental influences. Is the variation we see in humans scattered across the human species without any particular pattern? Or, are there geographic distributions to the variations in the human species? That is, are there limits to the presence of biological features? Some biological features will be found in a percentage of peoples in one geographic locale, but not found in the peoples that live somewhere else.

Race
Race as a Concept Goes back to the ancient world
Often confused with social identity National identity Tribal identity

Religious identity Predates understanding of biology and inheritance

 What is RaceReally
Could be defined as A population that differs in genetic composition from other similarly-defined populations This reflects gene pool Is a product of breeding history
No such thing as a pure race All populations have gene flow somewhere in their past or present

Race: A First Consideration

The concept of race is one of the most misunderstood ideas in human history, and one that has caused a great deal of misery and harm. For much of human history, peoples have been concerned about the nature and meaning of the physical differences that distinguish human populations. Often, in addition to their biological features, members of racial groups also had psychological and emotional attributes attributed to them.

Human variation I

The Reality of Race

There are consistent differences between different human populations. If you placed 100 San Bushman (from Southern Africa) in a room with 100 native Japanese, and with 100 native Swedes and with 100 native Australians, all of you could sort out the members of each of these populations with 100% accuracy. However, if you placed 100 Egyptians in another room with 100 Sudanese, with 100 Turkish people, with 100 Jordanians , it would be extremely difficult to sort out these people.

 People are distinct across broad geographic ranges (for example, between the populations from the Kalahari and from Sweden). However, humans are continuously distributed, with no distinct borders or boundaries separating populations. Biological features gradually change from one geographic area to another. Thus, there is both a reality of human difference between peoples from distant locales, and at the same time, no reality to the concept of racial groups bounded by distinct borders.

 Nineteenth-Century Ideas about Race There are only three human races Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid emerged from European folk concepts of the Middle Ages about the significance of physical differences like skin color, head shape, or type of hair. All people were thought to belong to one of these races and most authorities believed that these physical differences also implied differences in intelligence, abilities, and general merit as human beings. Some believed that such "racial" differences justified social inferiority, colonial control, and even slavery.

popmap

 Modern Concepts About Human Races "Race does not exist. Racism does exist." Modern research has shown that human populations cannot be divided into clearly defined, biologically distinct groups. Skull measurements, for example, vary widely not only within communities but even during a person's lifetime. The old "three-race" model has been discarded by science, as has the idea that "racial" differences are linked to intelligence and behavior. Some noted scholars have suggested that the concept of race should be dropped altogether; others propose "ethnic group" as a more accurate term for human differences.
Charles Keyes, Anthropologist, University of Washington, 1996

 Skin Colour Most visible characteristic. Historically long standing division into white, yellow and black. This is probably due originally to mutation. Although skin colour is highly visible.. not terribly accurate (some Caucasoid races are darker than some Negroids and there is a huge range of variation).

Linneaus (1707A.D. 1770A.D.)

Americanus:- Red, free, ruled by custom Europeans:- white, lively, inventive, ruled by law Asiaticus:- yellow, stern, haughty, stingy, ruled by opinion Africanus:- Black, cunning, slow and negligent.

 Blumenbachs Scheme - 1776 but still going strong today

Races tied to colors and geography

Most people just took the colors White - European Yellow East Asian Brown South and Southeast Asian Red Native Americas Black Africa and Australia

 In Latin America
Three- (sometimes four-) Tiered System Euros/Whites (European heritage) Mestizos (mixed heritage) Indios (Native Americans)

Sometimes Blacks incorporated as a parallel or approximately parallel group to Indios

Really many variants, in Brazil up to 500 social characterization Ex. Maroons

 Eye colour
All non-Caucasoid populations have a dark brown or a black iris Caucasoids have a range from light blue to brown. Many Asiatics have an epicanthic fold over the inner cornea of the eye which gives there appearance of a slant.

Hair colour and texture

Hair is dark and woolly in Negroids Straighter and lighter coloured in most Caucasoids. Black and flat in cross section in Chinese.

 Other indices Cephalic index - relative broadness of the head.

Not really useful because of inter-group variability. Stature, nose shape, lips, ears and body hair have also been used.

Blood groups are useful - Caucasians and Asiatics have a very similar distribution, American Indians are largely O. Overlaps Of course these are generalisations and there is much variation: Swedes are tall, fair haired and blue eyed Only, 11% of them are according to the Swedish army recruiting figures.

But even allowing for overlaps and generalisations and mixtures we can classify three broad racial types in the modern world. 1. Caucasoid: 1,000 million people with variable skin colour; white-dark brown. Hair variable, never woolly, body hair often thick. Lips tend to be thin. Three subdivisions exist,
The Nordic The Mediterranean The Alpine.

 The Nordic group - tall, blonde and narrow headed

Scandinavia, Baltic, Germany, France, Britain

The Mediterranean group - Lighter in body build, dark and narrow headed.
Southern France, Spain, Italy and oddly, Wales Egyptians, Semites, Persians, Afghans and some Indians.

The Alpine group extends from the Mediterranean to Asia - Broad headed, square jaws, olive skin, brown hair.

2. Mongoloids - Most numerous of the present day populations, split into three groups
The Eastern Siberians, Eskimos and the Northern American Indians The Japanese, Koreans, Chinese The Indonesians and Malays

3. Negroid - Africa and Melanesians of the S Pacific. 4. Others. Central African pigmies, the Bushmen and the Australoids.

The Social Concept of Race

In present day society, the social concept of race is intertwined with the idea of an ethnic group. When the U.S. government uses the term race, it often is describing groups of people who share language, culture and a vague historical background. For example, the use of the term Hispanic does not have any biological meaning, but rather refers to peoples from parts of Central and South America and the Caribbean.

Social Concepts of Race

Other socially constructed races, including African Americans (blacks), Europeans (whites), and Asians, have little biological reality and are often based on behavioral and cultural stereotypes, or simply on skin color. Many social agencies utilize the identification of the racial identity of people in order to determine the effectiveness of programs and thus for requests for Federal funding.

OTHER BRANCHES..

Primatology
is the study of primates. Primatology is an extremely diverse science. It ranges from anatomical studies of primate ancestors and field studies of primates in their natural habitat, to experiments in animal psychology and ape language. It has cast an immense amount of light on basic human behaviors and ancient ancestry of these behaviors. The study itself seems to change throughout different areas of the world, as different approaches, theories and methods are used in the researching of non-human primates and their relationships and links with humans.

 There are two main disciplines within the field of primatology, Western primatology and Japanese primatology. Although, fundamentally, both Western and Japanese primatology share many of the same principles, the areas of their focus in primate research and their methods of obtaining data differ widely.

 The Western study of primatology looks at the more biological and psychological aspects of their subjects (objective science). Their focus is on studying the common links between humans and primates, past our shield of society and into the nature we share with our ancestors. The Japanese discipline of primatology tends to be more interested in the social aspects of primates (subjective science). Social evolution and anthropology are of primary interest to them. The Japanese theory believes that studying primates will give us insight into the duality of human nature: individual self vs. social self.

 The traditional and cultural aspects of Japanese science lend themselves to an older sibling mentality. It is believed that animals should be treated with respect, but also a firm authority. This is not to say that the Japanese study of primatology is cruel far from it just that it doesnt feel that their subjects should be given reverential treatment. One particular Japanese primatologist, Kawai Masao, introduced the concept of kyokan. This was the theory that the only way to attain reliable scientific knowledge was to attain a mutual relation, personal attachment and shared life with the animal subjects.

e.g., Grooming
Although social grooming is observed in many animal species, the grooming activities undertaken by primates are not strictly for the elimination of parasites. .. is a social activity that strengthens relationships. The amount of grooming taking place between members of a troop is a potent indicator of alliance formation or troop solidarity. Robin Dunbar suggests a link between primate grooming and the development of human language. The size of the neocortex in a primates brain correlates directly to the number of individuals it can keep track of socially, be it a troop of chimps or a tribe of humans.

Forensic anthropology

Forensic anthropology can roughly be described as the application of the science of physical anthropology to the legal process. Most forensic anthropologists have been specialists in physical anthropology, which is the study of human biological function and variation, particularly skeletal biology.

Forensic anthropologists apply standard scientific techniques developed in physical anthropology to identify human remains, and to assist in the detection of crime. The physical anthropologists ability to understand the forms and variations of the human skeleton in individuals and populations complements the forensic pathologists emphasis on soft tissue. Therefore, the application of knowledge concerning human skeletal biology has been the basis of forensic anthropology as a profession.

 The examination process of human remains by the forensic anthropologist includes three tasks. One of those tasks is providing a biological profile (age, sex, stature, ancestry, anomalies, pathology, individual features) of the victim. The second task would be recreating the postmortem period based on the condition of the remains and the recovery environment. Lastly, they would provide data regarding the death event, including evidence of trauma occurring during the perimortem period (time of the death).

Osteology and Paleopathology

Study of the skeleton Analysis of fossil material Important for forensic anthropology Connected with bioarchaeology

Skeletalized remains from W Australia

Population Genetics
The characteristics of organisms are determined by their genetic material (DNA), and random mutations (changes) in the DNA can result in slight changes in organisms. As these accumulate, there can be changes in organisms, resulting in evolution. Population genetics attempts to analyze this process. In humans, we study how we have adapted to different environments.

APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY
Medical anthropologist bridges discipline of cultural anthropology and biological anthropology studies susceptibilities and resistance of certain population to specific disease studies health care delivery system

Disease and World Development

The spread of certain diseases, like malaria and schistosomiasis, cholera, dysentery etc. have been associated with population growth and economic development.

The Three Theories of Illness

Personalistic disease theories blame illness on agents such as sorcerers, witches, ghosts, or ancestral spirits. Naturalisitic disease theories explain illness in impersonal terms (e.g., Western medicine). Emotionalistic disease theories assume emotional experiences cause illness (e.g., susto among Latino populations).

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Cultural Anthropology (often called Social Anthropology in the UK) is the study both of specific contemporary human societies and of the underlying patterns of human culture. This study involves both detail examinations of individual cultures, called ethnography, and the analysis and interpretation of the data to discern cultural patterns, called ethnology.

Culture
The ideas, customs, skills, arts, etc. of a people or group, that are transferred, communicated, or passed along, as in or to succeeding generations; OR such ideas, customs, etc. of a particular people or group in a particular period, civilization.

CULTURE
(Edward Tylor 1871) First defined culture. knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

Tylor Believed All people were essentially the same All societies developed along a single path Unilineal Cultural Evolution

Savagery Barbarism Civilization

The Development of a New Culture Concept

Franz Boas Father of American Anthropology
Papa Franz

Culture is a learned series of behaviors designed to cope with the natural and social environments

 Culture is thus a set of explicit or implicit guidelines which inherit as members of a society. This learned behaviours tells them how to view the world, how to experience it emotionally, how to behave in it in relation to other people/ to supernatural forces or Gods/ to the natural environment. Children growing up in a particular society undergo the process of enculturation, that is acquire to adopt the culture pattern.

 Culture (Latin colere; to inhabit, to cultivate, or to honour) = refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. 3 elements: Values- comprise ideas about what seems important and guides the rest of the culture. Norms consist of expectations of how people should behave in different situations. Artifacts things or material culture, which derive from the cultures values and norms.

 Culture differs based on combinations of values, norms, artifacts. Have implications on health care. Based on some faith/ religion. Eg. Group of immigrants, exiles or minorities form clubs preserve own cultural roots in face of surrounding.

Culture
Is THE KEY CONCEPT in anthropology Explains how individual expressions of behavior are linked together Made up of our beliefs and assumptions about how the world operates
Our actions express how we use these beliefs and assumptions

You CANNOT do anthropology understanding this concept

without

Culture Has Many Expressions It can be expressed in

Language Dress Music Kinship Subsistence (how you get food) And everything else you do

It also includes Material Culture

Which is the stuff we make and use

 Everything you do that is not biologically based is a product of culture Example: a sneeze is biological
but saying something such as Salud or Bless You, or even, Wow, dude, dont lose your brain is cultural

ETHNOCENTRISM
The widespread human tendency to perceive the ways of doing things and beliefs about things in ones culture as normal and natural and that of others as strange, inferior, and possibly un-natural Ones own culture is superior, the best and others are inferior Everybody everywhere is a little ethnocentric

CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Counters Ethnocentrism Stresses the importance of analyzing cultures in their own terms rather than in terms of the culture of the anthropologist This does not mean that all cultural practices, cultural beliefs and behaviors can be condone Different from ethical relativismall right and wrong relative to time, place, and culture so that no moral judgments of behavior can be made.

Culture Change
In An Ever Changing World Humans Adapt 3 Major Questions Why do cultures change? How do cultures change? What is modernization?

 Why?
Pressures to change comes from several direction Increasing population Shift in infrastructure Increased contact with influential others Changes or entrenchments in superstructure

 Major Mechanisms ofHow? Change

From Within & With Choice Innovation - A new invention or method by chance. Diffusion - movement of material and/or behavior from one group to another. Culture Loss - As people move and adapt, their behaviors change. Sometimes what was done in the past is lost
Forced Change/Repressive Change Acculturation Genocide Directed Change

 Modernization
The Grass is Always Greener. Over the Septic Tank..

Inventions (Int changes)

Environment (education, SES),

Cultural changes

Affects individuals or groups of peoples

ACCULTURATION

Health care professionals Multicultural society

 Health manifestations of culture significant & determine patient behaviour. Culturally sensitive healthcare term used to describe healthcare system that inaddition to being accesible, respects the beliefs, attitudes and cultural lifestyles both of the patient and as a consequence, is sensitive to issues including culture, race, gender, sexual orientation, social class and economic situation. Cultural considerations important. in oral healthcare

 Cultural competency understanding that we all have different values that affect the way we view our health and healthcare, and how we view the world. Implies abitlity to successfully navigate through other cultures while understanding, appreciating, making comparisons to, and moving beyond stereotypes, while remaining sensitive to one owns cultural elements and those of other persons. Goal- provide best care posssible to each individual patient. CCC requires more than simply knowledge of other cultures attitudes & skills. Respects & recognises different religion and cultural need.

CULTURE IN PUBLIC HEALTH

Important because: Many diseases associated with culture & belief of people. Solution to these problems in control of diseases when the cultural and social factors well understood effective public health programs. Medical anthropology is a bio-cultural discipline that deals with the biological aspects and the social-cultural components influencing the health/ disease process (Helman 1994)

CULTURAL FACTORS IN HEALTH AND DISEASE All people, whether rural or urban have their own beliefs and practices concerning health and disease. It is now widely recognized that cultural factor are

deeply involved in all the affairs of man including

health and sickness. Belief account of the cultural factors relating to health and sickness as observed in India is given below.

1. Concept of etiology and cure a. supernatural causes i. wrath of Gods and Goddess e.g. small pox and chicken pox The disease is considered to be due to the wrath of gods and goddess, administration of drugs is considered harmful. ii. Breach of taboo e.g. veneral diseases are believed by some to be due to illicit sexual intercourse with a women of low caste or women during menstruation.

iii. Past sins: leprosy and TB iv. Evil eye: Children are considered to be most susceptible to the effect of evil eye. v. spirit or ghost intrusion: Some disease like hysteria, epilepsy are regarded as due to spirit of ghost intrusion to the body. b. Physical causes i. the effects of weather: Exposure to heat during summer is responsible for an attack of loo (heat stroke) ii. Water: Impure water is associated with disease. iii. Impure blood: skin disease, boils and scabies eating leaves and flowers is considered to purify blood.

2. Environmental sanitation i. disposal of human excretal: 98% of the people in rural areas use open fields for defecation. Polluted water and soil pomotes fly breeding. ii. Disposal of wastes: the solid waste is invariably thrown in front of the houses where it is polluted, accumulated and decompose. Periodically it is removed to the fields and used as mannure. iii. Water supply: tanks and ponds are used for bathing, washing and source of drinking water.

Holy water carried over a long distance for distribution among friends and relatives. -epidemic of cholera and gastroenteritis -step well are associated with guinea worm disease iv. Housing rural areas are usually damp, ill-lighted and ill ventilated. -absence of separate kitchen, latrine, bath room and drainage are characteristic features of an average rural area.

Food Habits
The oldest and most deeply entrenched aspects of any culture.

Have deep psychological roots, religious influence,

customs, beliefs and influence of local conditions. Family plays an important role in shaping the food habits and these habits are passed from one generation to other.

 Rice is the staple food in Eastern and Southern states of India. Deficiency of riboflavin is wide spread particularly in these populations where rice is the staple food. On the other hand pellegra due to Niacin deficiency is historically a disease of the maize eating

population. Pellagra has been reported in India in

Telangana area of A.P.

Studies of Gopalan et al (1971) have shown that amino acid imbalance caused by excess of leusine is the cause of pellagra in both maize and jowar eaters. Also studies of Krishnamachari et al 1978, shows that severity of dental fluorosis is high among the jowar eating population in the endemic areas of dental fluorosis in Karnataka.

In certain communities of India, the men eat first and women eat last and poorly, this is more common among orthodox Hindus. This poor nourishment could affect the oral health of women.

 Vegetarianism is given a place of honor in Hindu society. Some do not take garlic and onions on religious grounds. Concept of hot and cold food Foods such as meat, fish eggs and jaggery are considered to generate heat in the body. Foods such as curds, milk, vegetables and lemon are considered to cool the body.

 In many parts of A.P. and N. Karnataka the habit of taking spicy food and high consumption of green chilies is prevalent increase the occurrence of peptic ulcer and oral cancer. Many religion has rules that concern food. Some group of Hindus are forbidden to eat any meat helpful - prevents the occurrence of the disease Taeniasis caused by adult form of Taenia saginata which manifests orally as oedematous mucosa ulcers, gingival bleeding etc.

 Among Muslims pork is forbidden to eat as they are considered scavenging animal which feeds on human excreta and garbages. This religious rule prevents the occurrence of taenialis and cysticercalis which manifests orally as oedematous mucosal ulcers, gingival bleeding and lesions mimicking mucoceles.

 The tribal populations and Aborigines populations like Eskimos, New Zealand Maoris, Australian aboriginal, etc have diet pattern free from refined carbohydrate (the staple food consist of maize, millet, topica, potatoes) most of them are good sources of fluorides. In these populations caries prevalence is low due to cultural food habits.

 Western diet is based on refined carbohydrates including large amount of snack food, and canned soft drinks. (Mayhall 1975). This type of dietary culture is fastly encroaching metropolitan and cosmopolitan cities of India. This should be discouraged as it has ill effects on oral health. The Scandinavians enjoy herring and other fishes they are also noted for their excellent cheese, these food habits may provide them the anticaries effect.

In many of the cast and central African countries especially in the tribal areas of Tanzania, Trona a mixture of slate is used as a tenderizer, flavouring agent and preservative. This trona is a rich source of fluorides. This practice of using Trona in their cooking process increases the occurrence of dental fluorosis in those population (Mabolya 1992).

Mother and child health Marriage is universal in Indian society and the family is incomplete with out the birth of a male child. Certain good customs - prolonged breast feeding, oil-bath, massage and exposure to sun.

 In India eating Papaya (more common in T.N. and Pondicherry) and certain other food items e.g.. Eggs, meat, leafy vegetables.. forbidden to pregnant women - misbelief induce abortion or generate heat in the body and that may affect the developing foetus. Hence, rich sources of Vitamin A, iron, calcium, are not available to mother and developing foetus... Have a

negative effect on health and oral health of mother as

well as developing foetus.

 Child is not put into the breast feeding during the first three days of birth - belief colostrum is harmful. Instead the child is put on water and sugar solution a custom seen in Gwalior region of MP.
Prevents the passive transfer of immunity from mother to child making the child more susceptible to oral infection. Adverse cultural practices relating to premature termination of breast feeding and feeding child with over diluted cows milk leads to protein energy malnutrition and thereby oral health of the child is affected (Shah et al 1974).

 Practice of applying kajal or black soot mixed with oil to the eyelids. Partly for beautification and warding off the effect of evil eye. - this custom has been blamed for transmitting trachoma and other eye infections.

Personal hygiene a. Bathing- After child birth there may be 2 or 3 ceremonial baths, time is fixed upon the advice of the priest. - Practice of oil bath is a good Indian custom. - Use a paste consisting of gram, mustard oil and turmeric powder and rub it on the body before bath. Sleep insect bites many people in the rural areas sleep outside the house. Wearing shoes- transmission of hook worm diseases associated with bare feet. Many villages in south India do not wear shoe.

 Oral hygiene practices: Keeping oral cavity clean - culturally ingrained practice in India. Mouth cleaning is to be done in the morning after getting up as a daily ritual. Copious gargling with water and cleaning teeth and tongue with various oral hygiene aids and materials is a custom.

 Hindus : Brahmins, Priests, Clean their teeth with cherry wood for about an hour facing rising sun reciting prayers and involving heavenly blessings on them and their family members. This is quite common in Varnasi (UP). This culturally inbuilt practice would help in promotion of oral health.

 Muslims : Muslims as a part of "Namaas" clean their teeth five times a day, this has a bearing on oral health and improves the oral health. They use Miswak stick, tooth picks and gum massaging as apart of oral cleaning aids during "Namaas".

 Chewing Twig: In India use twigs of cashew, mango, neem, coconut fibres and datun to clean their teeth. Mango and cashew twigs - common in rural areas of Karnataka and A.P. Use of neem and Banyan twigs - common in T.N. Coconut fibres Kerala. Datun - North Indian states. These twigs - antimicrobial properties.. improve the oral hygiene could be considered a substitute for those groups who can not afford tooth brushes.

 Fagara zanthoxyloides chewing sticks in parts of W. Africa. In W. Indies chaw sticks from Gounia lupiloides. In some culture toothpowder (charcoal, ash, silica and tobacco). Tongue cleaning ancient habit used in Hindu & Chinese culture. In Westerners novel concept.reduce malodour.

 Western culture regular use of toothbrush & toothpaste. Importance of oral hygiene appreciated by those contact with Anglo-American cultures.

 Miswak Stick of Salvadorica persica Muslim countries of Middle East, Asia & Africa a good source of fluoride - provide anticaries effect. Hence, could be encouraged as part of oral hygiene practices in populations who cannot afford a tooth brush (Evin Levis 1977). WHO recommended use effective & inexpensive tool for oral hygiene. However, more gingival recession & occlusal attrition, yellow stain.

Dentifrices
Many people in the rural areas and in urban slums use common salt, charcoal powder, brick powder, sand, ash and cow dropping as cleaning materials. In long run.. produce enamel abrasion, dentin sensitivity and gingival recession. Some areas people do gum massage with alum powder, mishri. Belief gums would become strong - increases the risk of gingival damage.

Other Habits
Alcohol : Alcoholic drinks - tabooed by Muslims and high caste Hindus. On the contrary in Western culture the alcoholic drinks - a reward or as something glamorous and as a status symbol. It is frequent among both the sexes of the western world. Even the adolescence are habituated to alcohol because of their independent survival after 12 years of age. These practices increase the incidence of oral cancers and mental illness.

 Smoking Tobacco : Beedi smoking is quite common among the lower social class people, "Hookah" i.e. bubble smoking is more frequent in places where Moghul cultural influence is present. Reverse smoking is widely practiced among the fishing communities in Visakapatanam and Srikakulam districts of A.P. - most common in women in these areas. Belief prevent halitosis and tooth ache. Other reasons.. Not to expose the lighted end to wind and water, prevent husband from seeing it, prevent ashes from falling on the suckling child.

 This practice pays them with cancers of hard palate and base of the tongue. Also common in Goa and Eastern districts of Orissa.
Reverse smoking is also found in the people of lower socio-economic states of Columbia, Panama, Venezuela, Jamaica etc.

 Cigarette smoking - common among men and women of Western societies. Regarded as a status symbol. Smoking among pregnant women is common and it increases the incidence of cleft lip and cleft palate in the developing child and also a low birth weight child.

 The use of Cannabis (ancient drug) obtained from the Canabis indica.. Different names like charas (the resinous exudate from the flowering top of the female plant), bhang (the dried leaves and flowering shoots) and ganja (the resinous exudate from the small leaves) by means of incorporating it into cigarettes is quite common in India. These habits may have an ill effect on health and oral health.

 Chewing products: Areca nut common in people of South & SE Asia. Common effects mucosal staining, increased periodontal disease, submucous fibrosis. Disease of adults from Indian sub-continent.

 Coca leaf chewing: common in S. America, Java, Srilanka Leaves of shrub Erythroxylum coca release stimulant cocaine cause mucosal burns. Cola nut chewing: West & Central Africa. Cola nut from Cola verticillara/ C. ritida trees.. Releases stimulant caffeine & theobromine may cause dental erosions.

 Gum chewing: Gums from latex of plants. Khat (qat) chewing: from leaves of shrub Catha edulis, a habit seen in people from Arabian Peninsula & E. Africa.. Alkaloids tannin, cathinone, cathine & norephedrine released. Oral effects low DC but inverse perio pocket depth, chewing side TMJ dysfunction, keratosis of mucosa or cancer. Shammah have similar effects.

 Alum Rinsing : There is a wide belief that rinsing the mouth with alum solution would make the gums stronger. The astringent effect of alum gives a feeling of that but it is not so. They may have an adverse effect on oral health.

Smokeless tobaccoCommon in Asia & West. Betel Quid raises relative risk of Ca 15 fold. Toombak (Sudan), Shammah (Saudi arabia, N. Africa) Powdered tobacco & alkali mixture like nass/ naswar (N & Central Asia, Pakistan) Khaini mix of smokeless tobacco & slaked lime (Nepal, Bihar) Zarda sweetened paan (Bangladesh) Maras mix of ash & .powder from tobacco leaves (Turkey) West snuff/ in moist pouch. Snuff dippers Cancer prevalent in Southern states of USA Swedish snuff (Snus)

 Fermentation : There is a widely held belief that fermentation reduces pain in decayed teeth. Sometimes this fermentation may not worsen pain but on most occasions it increases the spread of inflammation along the facial planes causing cellulitis.

Castes
Castes are intimately tied to religion, social and political organization, and subsistence. Indian society is based on caste system. Caste system is less rigid in urban areas.

 In rural India, caste is an important basis of social differentiation. Upper caste people consider the lower caste people as untouchables. Lower caste peoples children are forbidden to attend the schools they will be ill treated in all aspects including discriminations in providing health facilities. These lower caste people work in agricultural fields of land lords and they in turn get their daily wages mostly in kind, - insufficient to pass a day. These practices have direct and indirect effect on health of the lower caste people.

Some Indian castes: Religious Elite & TeachersBrahmins Warriors & RulersKsatriyas MerchantsVaisyas LaborersSudras Untouchables/Dalitspolluted laborers, in conservative view not quite human, not a real caste (over 100 million of these people)

Sex and marriage: a. Monogamy is the most universal form of marriage b. Polygamy - Multiple Spouses at the same time a. Polygyny -marriage of one with several woman b. Polyandry-marriage of several men with one women is found in Todas of Nilgiri hills The inheritance of Jansar Bawar in UP and Nayars in Malabar coast The high rate of veneral disease in Himachal Pradesh is attributed to the local marriage customs.

Marriage
It exists in all cultures
Defined as A socially sanctioned sexual and economic union between at least two individuals

Marriage Functions
Connects individuals AND their families

most societies links two families together in physical & economic alliance Establishes social rules about sexual access Helps give position to children in society

However some communities

E.g Parsis marriage within the community Navayath muslims in Bhatkal. Consanguineous marriage.. Implications on health.

Culture specific diseases

Caused by unique combinations of environmental circumstances and cultural practices. Some cause relatively minor health problems while others are very serious and can even be fatal.

 Kuru is a fatal culture specific disease of the brain and nervous system that was found among the South For people of the eastern New Guinea Highlands. Until recently, it was thought that kuru is caused by a virus with a prolonged incubation period. Evidence now points to prions as being the cause.

 The symptoms include palsy, contracted face muscles, and the loss of motor control resulting in the inability to walk and eventually even eat. Kuru victims become progressively emaciated. The South For called this disease "trembling sickness" and "laughing sickness." The latter description was due to the fact that the face muscles of victims were constricted in a way that looked like a smile. Death almost always occurs within 6-12 months of the onset of symptoms.

 Since the South For had a personalistic explanation for illness, they logically assumed that Kuru was the work of witches who used contagious magic. As a result, people became very careful at cleaning up their house sites to make sure that witches could not obtain any of their hair, fingernail clippings, feces, or personal belongings. Witch hunts were organized and former witches were forced to confess and then join anti-witch cults. None of these steps slowed the rate of increase in the number of Kuru victims.

 In the early 1950's, a team of Australian doctors began working to discover what caused kuru. In the late 1950's, an American pediatrician named Carleton Gajdusek came to Papua New Guinea to try to solve the problem. Through the microscopic examination of tissue from people who died of kuru, he discovered that the disease organism was carried in the blood and was concentrated in brain tissue.

 The means of transmission was cannibalism. The South For ate their dead relatives as part of their funerary practices. Women butchered the corpses and were the main cannibals. They also gave this meat to their children. Men generally thought that it was unmanly. They had pigs to eat, while the diet of women and children was normally animal protein poor. In the early 1960's, cannibalism was outlawed in Papua New Guinea. Since then, the kuru rate has dropped off significantly but has not yet disappeared because of the very long incubation period for this disease. Between 1996 and 2004, 11 people were diagnosed with kuru. Apparently, all of them were born before 1950 and had contracted kuru before the end of cannibalism. This meant that the incubation period was 34-41 years in these cases.

Culture Specific Mental Disorders

Mental illness - present in all societies. However, the frequencies of different types of mental illness vary as do the social connotations. What is defined as a mild form of mental illness in one culture may be defined as normal behavior in another. For instance, people in western societies who regularly carry on animated conversations with dead relatives or other supernatural beings are generally considered mentally ill.

 The same behavior is likely to be considered healthy and even enviable in a culture that has an indigenous world-view. Such a person would be thought fortunate for having direct communication with the supernatural world. Traditionally among many Native American societies, dreams and the visionary world were, in a sense, more real and certainly more important than the ordinary world of humans.

 Among the Saora, tribe of Orissa State in India, young men and women sometimes exhibit abnormal behavior patterns that western trained mental health specialists would likely define as a mental disorder. They cry and laugh at inappropriate times, have memory loss, pass out, and claim to experience the sensation of being repeatedly bitten by ants when no ants are present.

 These individuals are usually teenagers or young adults who are not attracted to the ordinary life of a subsistence farmer. They are under considerable psychological stress from social pressure placed on them by their relatives and friends. The Saora explain the odd behavior of these people as being due to the actions of supernatural beings who want to marry them. The resolution to this situation is to carry out a marriage ceremony in which the disturbed person is married to the spirit.

 Once this marriage has occurred, the abnormal symptoms apparently end and the young person becomes a shaman responsible for curing people. In the eyes of the society, he or she changes status from a peculiar teenager to a respected adult who has valuable skills as a result of supernatural contacts.

 In North America, the public acts of poor mentally ill males are sometimes seen as being criminal. This is especially true if they are ethnic minorities or living on the streets. In contrast, similar abnormal behavior by rich males is likely to be viewed as being only eccentric. In the former Soviet Union, important people who publicly opposed government policy were sometimes considered mentally ill and were placed in mental institutions where they were kept sedated "for their own good."

 The standards that define normal behavior for any culture are determined by that culture itself. Normalcy is a nearly meaningless concept cross-culturally. For instance, in the Yanomam, Indian culture of South America, highly aggressive, violent men are considered normal and such individuals are often respected community leaders. In contrast, the same behavior among the Pueblo Indians, of the Southwestern United States was considered abnormal and dangerous for society. People who exhibited these traits were avoided and even ostracized.

Families
Anglo-American culture nuclear families, lone parents, families in which parents live together but are not married (including single-sex families) Independence characteristic of these cultures. Extended families elders act as role models, are in control, and are respected. Family decides where to seek healthcare whether HCP, traditional healer or a neighbour.

The Immigrant & Acculturation

Immigration --- profound change in lifestyle & behaviour of newcomers. 3 main phases: First phase: acute phase- communicable nature of illness potential public health threat. Others violence, psychiatric reactions. Because new immigrants tend to
Be of a different culture from locally dominant community. Be young Lack linguistic fluency Be stressed (racism, percieved racism) Be a part of extended family Have low income Have low standards of living

 In terms of health care, new immigrants may: Lack understanding of healthcare system available to them. Lack awareness of preventive practices and screening Have some reliance on traditional medicine.(miswak, salt)

Barriers to care: Anxiety Communication problems Cultural beliefs Denial Cultural insensitivity on the part of the HCPs Lack of understanding Work practices Cost

Result in: Alienation Mistrust Frustration Wasted time Poor treatment Increased morbidity Increased mortality Eg. Lack of proper immunisation. Seek help only when emergency.

 Second phase: Over at least 5 years Involves acculturation with modification of social norms, attitudes, values, behaviour and diet. Rate & degree influenced by:
Religion Place of birth & degree of exposure to majority culture Age Historic background Socioeconomics Education

 Communicable diseases brought under control. Conditions such as hypertension, diabetes.. Become prevalent change in lifestyle (lack of exercise, smoking etc.) Psychological disorders seizures, stress ( due to adjustment to new culture, burden of the past and separation from traditional family, domestic violence, gambling, substance abuse). Tend to acquire skills in language of dominant culture, gain access to healthcare services and adapt to local practices

Third phase
10 years or more after arrival. Uses host country healthcare services but suffering from chronic conditions. Acquire lifestyle, habits and diseases of culturally locally dominant community. Eg. In U.K. tobacco smoking high in third phase Bangladeshi men and Caribbean men & women hypertension, diabetes, CHD.

Disparities in health & determinants of health

In multicultural societies inequalities in health and determinants of health. Eg. In a study in London Non-white groups are more likely than white people to be living in poor quality housing. Black households are 3 times classed as unfit than white homes (Bangladeshis & Pakistanis).

 Variations in school performance: Black Caribbean children perform less well than most other Black & Ethnic (BME) children. Gypsy/Roma, Travellers of Irish Heritage children lowest attainment. Indian, Chinese perform better.

 Employment: Non-white twice as likely as white to be unemployed. Bangladeshis- 4 times rate of unemployment to White (5%). Black groups highest unemployment rate for under 25 years. Bangladeshi household lowest gross hourly earning & income. Variation in type of employment: Chinese, Indian, Whites professional and manageria.

 Barriers to healthcare for BME populations: BME less satisfied than whites with healthcare services (primary care). NHS Direct & walk-in centres underused by BME population. 1 in 6 refugees has health problem severe enough to affect lives. Elders from BME - poor health than that of Whites. BME populations high prevalence of certain diseases than dominant population.

Traditional practices affecting oral health

1. Hard tissue mutilation: Common in developing world esp Africa. No. of cultures chip or reshape teeth. Uganda, ?Tanzania, Nigeria operation of ebino or false teeth extraction of deciduous canine tooth buds when gingival swellings appear during eruption of primary canine teeth in infants. Similar practice in Somalia Ilko dacowo Tooth staining practice in Peru, Ecuador, Vietnam, Laos, thailand, Indonesia, Phillipines & Africa. In Nigeria, some people stain teeth with flowers of Solanum incanum or Nicotina tabacum

 Soft tissue mutilation: Facial & oral piercing common in Westernised societies, Africa, S. America. Temporary mutilation/ piercing in Hindus as part of religious ceremony Thapasyam. Facial scarring tribes in tropical Africa. Tattoos on face & elsewhere Maori, Nigeria & Cameroon, some Bedouins, in some western cultures. Lip tatooing N. Africa.

 Nigeria lip or gingiva tatooed before marriage without local anaesthesia using thorns of Balaites aegyptica & a mixture of charcoal & seeds of Acacia nilotica vartomentosa as pigments. Maxillary blue black gingival tatooing female Muslims in N. Africa, Middle East. East African groups children uvulectomy beliefhealth will be improved.

 Traditional Healing: Common among African, Chinese. Also give oral health advise specific toothbrush instruction. More than 90% of healers can identify gingival inflammation, dental caries, oral candidiasis from photographs.

Culturally sensitive healthcare

Provide respectful care Meet patients personal, religious & cultural needs Educate & inform on health issues Enable patients to make their own choices Respect those choices

 Culturally sensitive healthcare impossible without knowledge about cultural & ethnic issues. Avoid jumping to stereotyping conclusions E.g., Muslims & Arabs Only way to provide high quality & culturally sensitive care to listen sensitively to every patient, ask them, when appropriate, about their needs & wishes.

The fifth subfield Applied Anthropology

What is Applied Anthropology?

Applied Anthropology refers to the application of anthropological data, perspectives, theory, and methods to identify, assess, and solve social problems. Applied anthropologists work for groups that promote, manage, and assess programs aimed at influencing human social conditions.

Types of Applied Anthropology

Applied anthropologist come from all four subfields Biological anthropologists work in public health, nutrition, genetic counseling, substance abuse, epidemiology, aging, mental illness, and forensics. Applied archaeologists locate, study, and preserve prehistoric and historic sites threatened by development (Cultural Resource Management).

 Cultural anthropologists work with social workers, businesspeople, advertising professionals, factory workers, medical professionals, school personnel, and economic development experts. Linguistic anthropologists frequently work with schools in districts with various languages.

What is the Role of the Applied Anthropologist?

Three views: The Ivory Tower The Schizoid The Advocate

 The ivory tower view contends that anthropologists should avoid practical matters and focus on research, publication, and teaching.

 The schizoid view is that anthropologists should carry out, but not make or criticize, policy.

 The advocacy view argues that since anthropologists are experts on human problems and social change, they should make policy affecting people.

Jobs for Applied Anthropologists

Professional anthropologists work for a wide variety of employers: tribal and ethnic associations, governments, nongovernmental organizations, etc. During World War II, anthropologists worked for the U.S. government to study Japanese and German culture.

Responsibilities of the Anthropologist

The primary ethical obligation of the anthropologist is to the people, species, or materials he or she studies. Researchers must respect the safety, dignity, and privacy of the people, species, or materials studied. Researchers must obtain the informed consent of the people to be studied.

Responsibility to Scholarship and Science

Anthropologists should expect to encounter ethical dilemmas during their work. Anthropologists are responsible for the integrity and reputation of their discipline, or scholarship, and of science. Researchers should disseminate their findings to the scientific and scholarly community.

Responsibility to the Public

Researchers should make their results available to sponsors, students, decision makers, and other nonanthropologists. Anthropologists may move beyond disseminating research results to a position of advocacy.

Academic and Applied Anthropology

Academic anthropology had its beginning in the early 20th century (Kroeber, Malinowski, Boas).
After World War II, the baby boom fueled the growth of the American educational system and anthropology, fostering the further growth of academic anthropology.

The Spread of Applied Anthropology

Applied anthropology began to grow in the 1970s as anthropologists found jobs with international organizations, governments, businesses, and schools.

The National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 resulted in the new field of cultural resource management.

The Pragmatism of Cultural Anthropology

In the 1960s, anthropologys focus fit with prevailing social interests, which began the turn to practical applications. Anthropologys ethnographic method, holism, and systemic perspective make it uniquely valuable in applications to social problems.

Applications of Cultural Anthropology

Applied cultural anthropology has excelled in four areas in particular: Education Urban social issues Medicine Business

Anthropology and Education

In particular, anthropology has helped facilitate the accommodation of cultural differences in classroom settings. Examples include English as a second language taught to Spanish-speaking students; different, culturally based reactions to various pedagogical techniques.

Urban Anthropology
Human populations are becoming increasingly urban. Urban anthropology is a cross-cultural and ethnographic study of global urbanization and life in the cities.

Urban vs. Rural

Robert Redfield was an early student of the differences between the rural and urban contexts. Various instances of urban social forms are given as examples (Kampala, Uganda) social networks in particular.

ECOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Study of relations between people and their environment . Ecological anthropologists believe that populations are not engaged with the total environment around them, but rather with a habitat consisting of certain selected aspects and elements. Furthermore, each population has its own adaptations institutionalized in the culture of the group, especially in their technologies.

 Faculty research interests and expertise related to ecological anthropology include Agroforestry Conservation and sustainable livelihood improvement Development and environmental change Ecology of complex societies Environmental disaster and change Ethnobiology, Ethnobotany, Historical ecology, Human ecosystem theory, Human health and the biophysical environment, hunter/gatherer ecology, land use and land cover change, non-human primate ecology, nutrition and the biophysical environment, Paleoecology of early humans, archaeology and paleoenvironment, plant domestication, political ecology, remote sensing, and zooarchaeology.

Medical Anthropology
Medical anthropology is both academic (theoretical) and applied (practical). Medical anthropology is the study of disease and illness in their sociocultural context. Disease is a scientifically defined ailment. Illness is an ailment as experienced and perceived by the sufferer.

Health-Care Systems and Specialists

All societies have health-care systems. Health-care systems consist of beliefs, customs, specialists, and techniques aimed at ensuring health and preventing, diagnosing, and treating illness. Health cares specialists include curers, shamans, and doctors.

What Have We Learned from Non-Western Medicine?

Non-Western systems of medicine are often more successful at treating mental illness than Western medicine. They often explain mental illness by causes that are easier to identify and combat. Non-Western systems of medicine diagnose and treat the mentally ill in cohesive groups with full support of their kin.

The Down-side of Western Medicine

Despite its advances, Western medicine has problems. Overprescription of drugs and tranquilizers. Unnecessary surgery. Impersonality and inequality of the patient-physician relationship. Overuse of antibiotics.

Medical Development
Like economic development, medical development must fit into local systems of health care. Medical anthropologists can serve as cultural interpreters between local systems and Western medicine.

Anthropology and Business

Anthropologists can provide unique perspectives on organizational conditions and problems within businesses. Applied anthropologists have acted as cultural brokers in translating managers goals or workers concerns to the other group. For business, key features of anthropology include ethnography, cross-cultural expertise, and focus on cultural diversity.

Careers in Anthropology
Because of its breadth, a degree in anthropology may provide a flexible basis for many different careers. Other fields, such as business, have begun to recognize the worth of such anthropological concepts as microcultures. Anthropologists work professionally as consultants to indigenous groups at risk from external systems.

 What kind of jobs do applied anthropologists get when they grow up?
Educational planner Bilingual education policy planner/teacher Environmental management Ergonomics & design Dispute processing Product design and marketing National Park Service

More jobs
Museum curator County planner International development, eg., World Bank or USAID Nutritional policy Intercultural trainer

Conclusion
Anthropology studies the emergence and development of man from the physical, cultural and social points of view. Evolution is a continuous process which never ceases, unless no life on the earth. To conclude what can be said is NECESSITY IS THE MOTHER OF ALL CREATIONS". This applies to mankind also, meaning that Man has evolved Physically and Culturally in response to the changing circumstances, environment and need for survival and hence the concept Survival of the fittest.

And Still There is More

Anthropology provides you with tools you can use every day! Understanding how people and systems function can help you run a business, serve clients and patients, even navigate the COD bureaucracy. Understanding the interactions between biology and culture is fundamental to an appreciation of human variation and diversity.

Bibliography
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 Carol R.Ember, Melvin Ember and Peter N. Peregrine; The first Hominids, Textbook of Physical Anthropology, 2nd Ed[2003] :85-101 P.Nath,Human evolution, Textbook of physical Anthropology, 1st Ed [1992] : 447-541. www.killgrove.org/ANT 220/ jan 29.ppt D.N.Mujumdar and T.N.Madan, Uses of Anthropolgy,Textbook of An introduction to Social Anthropology, 1st Ed 1986; 30-40. B.K.B.Berkovitz: evolution of man: Textbook of oral anatomy & embryology:2nd edition:1992:P.g30816.

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