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Dr. RAVINDRA. H.J. & Dr.P.S.

Aithal
Fundamental properties of metals
Assumption of classical theory, merits and
demerits of classical free electron theory
Electrical conductivity, effect of impurities and
temperature on the electrical resistivity
Basic assumption of Quantum free electron
theory, merits of this theory over classical free
electron theory
Fermi-Dirac statistics, Fermi energy, Fermi factor
and Temperature dependence of resistivity

High electrical and thermal conductivities.
Obey Ohms law. i.e., steady state current (I) is proportional to
applied voltage E. (I o E).
At low temperature, resistivity is proportional to fifth power of
absolute temperature. ( o T
5
).
At high temperature above room temperature, the resistivity is
linearly proportional to absolute temperature. ( o T).
In many metals, resistivity is inversely proportional to the pressure.
( o 1/P).
Near absolute zero temperature, resistivity of metals tends towards
zero leads to superconductivity.
Wiedemann-Franz law : For most of the metals, the ratio of thermal
conductivity to electrical conductivity is proportional to absolute
temperature.
The specific heat capacity of metals increases with the increase in
temperature.
The paramagnetism of metals is nearly independent of temperature.

Na metal
Discovery of electron J.J. Thomson (1897)
Valence electron free electron conduction
electron
+
+
+
+
+ +
Definitions

Lattice array of atoms/ions in three dimensions

Drift velocity net displacement /unit time of the randomly moving
electrons in the direction opposite to the applied electric field direction

Mean free path () average distance travelled by the conduction
electrons between successive collisions with lattice points

Mean collision time (t) - the average time elapsed between the two
successive collision with the lattice points

Relaxation time (t
r
) time required for the electrons to reduce its average
velocity to 1/e times its value when the electric field is just switched off

In a metal, there are freely moving valence electrons called
free electrons. When we apply an external electric field,
electric current flows due to drift velocity of electrons in the
direction opposite to applied field.

The free electrons are treated equivalent to gas molecules,
and thus these free electrons obeys the laws of kinetic theory
of gases.

The electric field due to the ionic cores is considered to be
constant throughout the metal.

The attraction between the electrons and lattice ions, and
the repulsion between electron and electron are ignored.
u
t
t
cos 1
=
r
u
Resistance force, F
r





Driving force, F = eE
For the steady state F
r
= F

t
d
r
mv
F =
eE
mv
d
=
t
t
m
eE
v
d
=
Current density, J: current per unit area of cross-section
J = I/A

Electric field, E: the potential drop/unit length
E = V/L

Resistivity, : Resistance R is directly proportional to L, and
also R is inversely proportional to A.
R o L/A
R = L/A
or = RA/L

is called resistivity and is the property of the material
which gives the measure of opposition offered by the
material during the current flow in it.

Conductivity, o :the physical property that characterizes the conducting
ability of a material.
Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity
i.e o = 1/
o = 1/RA/L
o = L/RA

Relation between J, o and E :
From Ohms law we have
V = IR
I = V/R
Multiply both side by (L/A) we get
LI/A = VL/RA
but I/A = J & L/RA = o
L J = oV
J = oV/L
J = o E ( E = V/L)
The above expression is sometimes referred as Ohms law in
general form.
Let I be the current flowing through a conductor of uniform cross section A, if the
electrons are moving with the velocity v then the length travelled by the electron
in unit time is v meters.

Let n be the no. of electrons per unit volume

Then the no. of electrons in volume vA is = nvA

If e is the charge on electron then rate of electron crossing unit cross section in
unit time is = nevA

No. of electrons crossing unit cross section per second is same as the rate of flow
of charges
I = nevA

Since the velocity of the electron is due to applied electric field
v = v
D
I = ne v
D
A
The driving force on the electron with charge e due to the
application of electric field E is given by
F = eE
If m is the mass of the electron, from the Newtons second law of
motion, force on the electron is given by


At steady state F
r
=F


dt
dv
m ma F = =
dt
m
eE
dv
eE
dt
dv
m
=
=





Since t =t and

Then

The electrical conductivity is given by


But J=I/A

t
m
eE
v
dt
m
eE
dv
=
=
} }
D
v v =
t
m
eE
v
D
=
E
J
= o
EA
I
= o

The quantity of charge crossing a given point in the conductor/unit
area/unit time, is the current in a conductor, given by



Substitute above equation in conductivity expression we get






But then





A nev I
D
=
E
nev
EA
A nev
D D
= = o
t
m
eE
v
D
=
(

= t o
m
eE
E
ne
m
ne t
o
2
=

Mobility: Magnitude of the drift velocity acquired by an electron
in a unit field



We know that


Then

E
v
D
=
t
m
eE
v
D
=
|
.
|

\
|
= t
m
eE
E
1
m
et
=
There are two mechanisms which gives rise to two
components of resistivity
ideal resistivity
Residual resistivity


o ne =
D
v
E
ne
= o
Resistivity due to scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations
which increases with temperature.
Resistivity exhibited by the pure materials that is free of
defects


Resistivity due to scattering of
Electrons by the presence of
Impurities and imperfection
(imperfection- dislocation vacancies
Grain boundaries)
Specific heat: Molar specific heat at constant volume
is C
v
=(3/2) R
Experimental Cv = 10
-4
RT

Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:

T
1
exp
o
T
1
o

Zinc 13.1 x 10
28
/m
3
Cadmium 9.28 x 10
28
/m
3

Copper 8.45 x 10
28
/m
3

Silver 5.85 x 10
28
/m
3
Mean freepath: experimentally measured data shows that mean free path is of
the order of 50 , but according to classical free electron theory the mean free
path is around 3-5

Hall coefficient: In metals electrons are the current carriers and should
show negative hall coefficient, but some metals exhibits positive hall
coefficient

Paramagnetic susceptibility: paramagnetic susceptibility is inversely
proportional to temperature, but experimental results shows that it is
nearly independent of temperature

Photoelectric effect and Compton effect
Ferromagnetism:
Classification of solids:
n o
Arnold Summerfield 1928
Planks Quantum theory & Pauli exclusion principle
The energy values of electrons are quantized as various allowed
energy levels.
The distribution of electrons in these allowed levels takes place
according to Pauli exclusion principle
The electrons are treated as fermions and obeys Fermi-Dirac
statistics
The potential due to lattice ions is taken to be constant throughout
the metal.
The attractive force between core and the electron and the
repulsion between the electron and electron is ignored.




It is the number of energy states in an energy range E and
(E+dE) for the electrons in a 3-dimensional solid of unit volume.



g(E) is the number of available states per unit energy range
centered around E.






dE E m V
h
dE E g
2 / 1 2 / 3
3
) 2 (
4
) (
t
=
At a temperature T the probability of occupation of an electron
state of energy E is given by the Fermi distribution function




Fermi distribution function determines the probability of
finding an electron at the energy E.
) / (
1
1
) (
kT E E
F
e
E F

+
=
E
F
E<E
F
E>E
F

0.5
F(E)
E
The number of electrons occupying energy level in the range E&
E+dE is the product of the number of allowed energy states in
the same energy range and the Fermi factor
N(E)dE = g(E)dE X f(E)
Therefore the total number electrons occupying energy interval
from 0 to E
F
at 0K is given by


But at 0K, f(E) = 1






) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0 0
0 0
E f E d E g E d E N N
F F
E E
} }
= =
} }
= =
0 0
0
2 / 1 2 / 3
3
0
) 2 (
4
) ( ) (
F F
E E
dE E m V
h
E d E g N
t
2 / 3 2 / 3
3
2 / 3 2 / 3
3
0
2 / 1 2 / 3
3
0
0
) 2 (
3
8
3
2
) 2 (
4
) 2 (
4
F F
E
E m V
h
E m V
h
dE E m V
h
N
F
t t t
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =
}
3 / 2
2
8
3
2
0
|
.
|

\
|
=
t
n
m
h
E
F
But n is the total number of electron present in a volume V














2 / 3 2 / 3
3
0
) 2 (
3
8
/
F
E m
h
V N n
t
= =
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
0
0
12
1
F
F F
E
kT
E E
t
0
F F
E E =
}
=
0
0
) (
F
E
total
dE E Eg E
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
3
3
2
5
2
) (
) (
2 / 3
2 / 5
0
2 / 1
0
2 / 3
0
0
_
F
F
F
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
dE E
dE E
dE E g
dE E Eg
E
F
F
F
F
= = = =
}
}
}
}
Temperature at which the average thermal energy of the free
electron in a solid becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 0K.





Where k is the Boltzmann constant given by 1.38 x10
-23
J/K
Fermi velocity, v
f
: the velocity of the electron which occupy
the Fermi level

F F
E kT =
k
E
T
F
F
=
2
2
1
F F
mv E =
m
E
v
F
F
2
=
Fermi-Dirac distribution is a representation which predicts the
details of distribution of electrons among the various allowed
energy levels of a material under thermal equilibrium
conditions.
T=0K

T>0
T=0
N(E)
E
g(E)
E
F

T>>0K
k
h h
p
|
.
|

\
|
= =
t 2
Electrons experience a force due to applied field given by F= eE




Integrating the above equation we get


Current density is given by


eE
dt
dP
F = =
f
f
v m
ne

o
*
2
=
eE
dt
dk h
dt
dp
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
t 2
eE
h dt
dk
|
.
|

\
|
=
t 2
eEt
h
k t k
|
.
|

\
|
=
t 2
) 0 ( ) (
F
eE
h
k t
t
|
.
|

\
|
= A
2
E
m
E ne
m
k h
ne nev
A
I
J
F
o
t
t
= =
A
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
*
2
*
2
*
2 m
k h
v
A
|
.
|

\
|
=
t
Specific heat



Temperature dependence of o

Electron concentration and o
n for aluminium is 2.13 times higher than copper
(/v
f
) for copper is 3.73 times higher than aluminium

RT
E
k
C
F
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
Classical Model:
Metal is an array of positive
ions with electrons that are
free to roam through the ionic
array
Electrons are treated as an ideal
neutral gas, and their total energy
depends on the temperature and
applied field
In the absence of an electrical
field, electrons move with
randomly distributed thermal
velocities
When an electric field is applied,
electrons acquire a net drift
velocity in the direction opposite
to the field
Quantum Mechanical
Model:
Electrons are in a potential
well with infinite barriers:
They do not leave metal, but
free to roam inside
Electron energy levels are
discrete (quantized) and well
defined, so average energy of
electron is not equal to (3/2)k
B
T
Electrons occupy energy levels
according to Paulis exclusion
principle
Electrons acquire additional
energy when electric field is
applied

The experimentally measured resistivity of the silver (assuming only one
electron per atom) is 1.64 10
-8
ohm-m. Calculate the relaxation time,
drift velocity and mobility of the electrons in silver for applied filed
strength of 2000 V/m. (Given the density of silver is 10.5 g/cm
3
, atomic
weight of silver is 107.82)

The experimentally measured resistivity of the gold wire (assuming only
one electron per atom) is 2.44 10
-8
ohm-m. Calculate the relaxation
time, drift velocity and mobility of the electrons in gold (Given: applied
field strength across the wire is 45 V/cm the density of gold is 19.3
g/cm
3
, atomic weight of gold is 196.96).

Find the Fermi energy of copper by assuming that each copper atom
contributes one free electron to the electron gas. The density of copper
is 8.94 x 10
3
kg/m
3
and atomic weight is 63.54.


Calculate the Fermi energy of Na assuming that it provides one free
electron per atom.; Given h = 6.625 x 10
34
Js; mass of electron = 9.11 x
10
-31
kg; density of Na is 970 Kg/m
2
and atomic weight of sodium =
22.99.

The density of zinc is 7.13 x 10
3
kg.m
-3
and its atomic weight is 65.4.
Calculate the Fermi energy and the mean energy at T = 0 K.

Fermi energy of Silver is 5.51 eV. What is the average energy of a free
electron at 0 K. ?

Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level 0.025
eV above the Fermi level at 300K, in a material.
(VTU Dec. 09/Jan. 10)

A metal has Fermi energy 6.23 eV. Determine the energy for which the
probability of occupancy is 0.75 at 350 K.

The Fermi level in silver is 5.5 eV at 0K. Calculate the number of free
electrons per unit volume and the probability of occupation for electrons
with energy 5.6 eV in silver at the same temperature.

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