INTRODUCTION TO C

INTRODUCTION TO C
C was developed by Dennis Ritchie at Bell laboratory in 1972 It is an upgrade version of languages B and BCPL.

Features of C
It is a structured programming language. It is highly portable. It is a middle level language. It is a case sensitive language. It uses Top-Down approach. It is a Free form language.etc,.

Steps in learning C

Character Set

Tokens

Instructions

Programs

C Character Set
C Character Set

Source Character Set

Execution Character Set

Alphabets Digits

Special White Characters Spaces

Escape Sequence

C Character Set (Cont)

Source Character Set
It is used to construct the statements in the program.

Executable Character Set

These characters are employed at the time of execution i.e. they have effects only when the program is being executed.

Source Character Set

Letters Digits a to z ,A to Z 0 to 9

Special Characters
White Spaces

!@#$%^&*()_-+ = \ | { } [ ] etc,. Blank Space ,Horizontal tab, New line, Vertical tab etc,.

Special characters
Comma Period or dot Semicolon Colon Apostrophe Quotation mark Exclamation mark Vertical bar Back Slash Tilde Underscore Dollar Question mark , . ; : ! | \ ~ $ ?

Ampersand Caret Asterisk Minus Addition Lesser than Greater than Parenthesis Bracket Braces Percentage Hash Equal to At the rate

& ^ * + < > () [] {} % # = @

Executable Character Set

Characters Back Space Horizontal Space Vertical Space Newline Escape Sequence \b \t \v \n

C Tokens
The smallest element in the C language is the token. It may be a single character or a sequence of characters.

C Tokens (Cont)
C Tokens

Identifiers Keywords Constants Strings operators Eg:main, avg Eg: int, for Eg:17, 15.5 Eg: ab Eg: + -

spI symbol Eg: # $%

Executing a C Program
Creating the Program

Compilation

Linking

Execution

Executing a C Program (Cont)

Enter the program in a C editor. Save the program (File Save) or F2. Use the extension .c for saving the file. Eg: sample.c Compile the program(Compile Compile) or Alt+F9. Run the program(Run Run) or Ctrl+F9.

Executing C program using UNIX

Enter the program in vi editor. Save the file using :wq Use the extension .c for saving the file. Eg: sample.c Compile the program. Eg: cc sample.c (or) gcc sample.c Run the program using a.out.

Structure of C program
DOCUMENTATION SECTION PREPROCESSOR SECTION DEFINITION SECTION GLOBAL DECLARATION SECTION main() { Declaration part; Executable Part; } sub program section { Body of the subprogram; }

 Documentation Section
It contains the comment lines.

Preprocessor Section
It is used to link library files.

Global Declaration Section

The Global declaration section comes at the beginning of the program and they are visible to all parts of the program.

Declaration Section
It describes the data to be used within the function.

Executable Part
It contains the valid statements.

C Programs
C program may have many functions.
One and only one of the functions MUST BE named main. main is the starting point for the program. main and other functions in a program are divided into two sections, declaration section and statement section.

Preprocessor Directives
Special instructions to the preprocessor that tells how to prepare the program for compilation E.g: include : tells the processor to include information from selected libraries known as header files e.g. <stdio.h>

Comments (Program documentation)

The compiler simply ignores comments when it translates the program into executable code. To identify a comments, C uses opening /* and closing */ comment tokens.

Comments (Cont)

Comments can appear anywhere in a program. Comments are also found wherever it is necessary to explain a point about a code. Comments cannot be nested in C i.e. you cannot have comments inside comments.

C program
/* Example program in C*/ Comments # include <stdio.h> Preprocessor Section Global Declaration void main () {

Local declaration Statements

printf (Hello World! \n);

} Output : Hello World

C Tokens
Identifiers Keywords Constants Operators Special symbols

Identifiers
Identifiers are names given to various program elements such as variables, functions and arrays etc,. Eg: #define N 10 #define a 15 Here N and a are user defined identifiers.

Rules for naming identifier

First character must be alphabetic or underscore.

Must consist only of alphabetic characters, digits, or underscores.

Only the first 31 characters of an identifier are significant and are recognized by the compiler. Cannot use a keywords or reserved word (e.g. main, include, printf & scanf etc.). No space are allowed between the identifiers etc,. C is case sensitive, e.g. My_name my_name.

Examples of Valid and Invalid Names

Valid Names
a student_name _aSystemName TRUE a1 stdntNm $sum 2names

Invalid Names
/* $ is illegal */ /* Starts with 2 */

_anthrSysNm stdnt Nmbr /* no spaces */ FALSE int /* reserved word */

Variables
Variable is an identifier that is used to represent some specified type of information. Eg: x=3 Here x is variable.

Keywords
It is a reserved words. Cannot be used for anything else. Examples:
int while for etc,.

Keywords
Auto Double Int Struct Break Else Long Switch Case Enum Static register typedef Char extern return union Const Float short unsigned While Continue For signed void Default Goto sizeof do If

Constants
It is an entity whose value does not changes during the execution. Eg: x=3 Here 3 is a constant.

Types
Numeric constants Character constant

Constants
Constants

Numeric Constants

Character Constants

Integer Constant

Real Constant

Single Character Constant

String Constant

Numeric constants
Integer constants It is formed using a sequence of digits.
Decimal - 0 to 9 . Octal - 0 to 7. Hexa - 0 to 9 ,A to F

Eg: 10,75 etc.

Rules for defining Integer Constant

It must have atleast one digit. Decimal point are not allowed. No blank space or commas are allowed. It can be either positive or negative. Etc,.

Numeric constants
Real constants It is formed using a sequence of digits but it contain decimal point. length, height, price distance measured in real number Eg: 2.5, 5.11, etc.

Character constants
Single character constant
A character constant is a single character they also represented with single digit or a single special symbol which is enclosed in single quotes.

Eg: a, 8,_etc.

Character constants
String constants
String constant are sequence of characters enclosed with in double quote. Eg: Hello ,444,a etc,.

Operators
An operator is a symbol that specifies an operation to be performed on the operands. Eg: a + b + is an operator. a,b are operands.

Data Types
A Data type is the type of data that are going to access within the program.

Standard Data Types

These Standard type can be used to build more complex data types called Derived Types (e.g. pointers, array, union etc.).

Data types
Data type Size(bytes) Range Format string

Char
int

1
2

-128 to 127
-32,768 to 32,767

%c
%d

Float
Double

4
8

3.4 e-38 to 3.4 e+38

1.7 e-308 to 1.7 e+308

%f
%lf

integer

A number without a fraction part : integral number. C supports three different sizes of the integer data type : short int int long int

Floating Point

A floating-point type is a number with a fractional part, e.g. 56.78 Floating point numbers are stored using 4 Byte. Types

Float Double long double

character - PLato
Character are generally stored using 8 bits(1 Byte) of the internal storage. Character a x ASCII code value 97(decimal) or 01100001(binary) 120(decimal) or 01111000(binary)

void

The void type has no values and no operations. Both the set of values and the set of operations are empty.

Variables Declaration

To create a variable, you must specify the type and then its identifier :
float price; int a,b; char code;

Entire Data types in c:

Data type Char Unsigned char Short or int Unsigned int Long Unsigned long Float Double Long Double Size(bytes) 1 1 2 2 4 4 4 8 10 Range 128 to 127 0 to 255 -32,768 to 32,767 0 to 65535 -2147483648 to 2147483647 0 to 4294967295 3.4 e-38 to 3.4 e+38 1.7 e-308 to 1.7 e+308 3.4 e-4932 to 1.1 e+4932 Format string %c %c %i or %d %u %ld %lu %f or %g %lf %lf

Types of Operator
Arithmetic operator Relational operator Logical operator Assignment operator Increment or decrement operator(unary) Bitwise operator Conditional operator

Arithmetic operator
It is used to carry out arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction etc, Eg: + , - , * , / etc,

Sample program
#include<stdio.h> // Header File #include <conio.h> int b=10; //Global Declaration void main ( ) /* main is the starting of every c program */ { int a,c; //Local Declaration clrscr( ); scanf(%d,&a); printf( \n The sum of the two values:); c = a+b; printf(%d,c); getch( ); }

Division operator on Different Data Type

Operation int/int int/real real/int real/real

Result int real real real

Example 5/2 = 2 5/2.0 = 2.5 5.0/2 = 2.5 5.0/2.0 = 2.5

Sample program
#include<stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main ( ) { int a=10,b=4,c; float d=3,e; clrscr( ); c = a/b; printf(" \n value a/b is:%d",c); e = a/d; printf("\n value a/d is:%f",e); getch( ); }

Output
value a/b is:2 value a/d is:3.333333

Relational operator
It is used to compare two or more operands. Eg :< , > , <= , >=, != etc,. 5 < 9 which will return 1

Logical operator
It is used to combine the result of two or more condition. AND(&&) OR (||) NOT (!) are Logical operators. Eg: (i>10)&&(j>5). (i>10)||(j>5) etc,.

Sample program
#include<stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main ( ) { int a=10,b=3,c=5,e; clrscr( ); if(a>b) // relational operator { printf(" \n a is bigger than b"); } if((a>b)&&(a>c)) //Logical operator { printf(" \n a is biggest"); } getch( ); }

Output
a is bigger than b a is biggest

Assignment operator
It is used to assign a value or expression etc to a variable. Eg: a =10. a=b a = b + c etc,.

Assignment operator(Cont)
Compound operator It is also used to assign a value to a variable. Eg: x + = y means x = x + y Nested operator It is used for multiple assignment. Eg: i = j = k = 0;

Sample program
#include<stdio.h> #include <conio.h> int b=10; void main ( ) { int a=3,b=5; clrscr( ); a+=b; // a= a+b printf(" \n The sum of the two values:%d",a); getch( ); }

Output
The sum of the two values:8

Increment or decrement operator(Unary)

It is used to Increment or decrement an operand. Eg: ++x (Pre Increment), x++ (Post Increment), --x (Pre Decrement), x-- (Post Decrement).

Sample Program
#include<stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main ( ) { int a=5; clrscr( ); printf(" \n Post increment Value:%d",a++); printf(" \n Pre increment Value:%d",++a); printf(" \n Pre decrement Value:%d",--a); printf(" \n Post decrement Value:%d",a--); getch( );

Output
Post increment Value:5 Pre increment Value:7 Pre decrement Value:6 Post decrement Value:6

Bitwise operator
It is used to manipulate data at bit level. Eg: a=5 i.e 0000 0101 b=4 i.e 0000 0100 Then a & b = 0000 0100 a | b = 0000 0101 etc,.

Sample program
#include<stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main ( ) { int a=5,b=4,c; //char a=5,b=4,c; clrscr( ); c = a&b; printf(" \n value a&b is:%d",c); getch( ); }

Output
value a&b is:4

Conditional Operator (or) Ternary Operator

It is used to checks the condition and execute the statement depending on the condition. Eg: C = a > b ? a:b

Sample Program
#include<stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main ( ) { int a=5,b=8,c; clrscr( ); c = a>b?a:b; //Conditional operator printf(" \n The Larger Value is%d",c); getch( ); }

Output
The Larger Value is 8

Special Operator
comma operator ( , ) sizeof operator pointer operator (& , *) etc,.

#include<stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main ( ) { int c; clrscr( ); printf(" \n size of int is:%d",sizeof c); getch( ); }

Output
size of int is: 2

Expression
An expression represent data item such as variable, constant are interconnected using operators. Eg:
Expression a+b+c C Expression a+b+c

a2+b2

a*a + b*b

Operator Precedence & Associativity

The arithmetic expressions evaluation are carried out based on the precedence and associativity. The evaluation are carried in two phases.
First Phase: High Priority operators are evaluated. Second Phase: Low Priority operators are evaluated.

Precedence High Low

Operator *,/,% +,-

Example
5 - 20/4 + 3*3 1 =5-5+91 =0+91 =91 =8

Example
5 (20/4) + 3*(3 1) = 5 - 5 + 3*2 =5-5+6 =6

Type Conversion
Converting the type of an expression from one type to another type. Eg: x = (int)10.45

Sample Program
#include<stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main ( ) { int c; clrscr( ); c=(int)10.45; printf("\nOutput is:%d",c); getch( ); } OUTPUT Output is:10

Input/Output Function
Input/Output Function

Formatted

Unformatted

Input
scanf() fscanf()

Output
printf() fprintf()

Input getc() gets() getchar()

Output putc() puts() putchar()

Formatted Input/Output

C uses two functions for formatted input and output.

Formatted input : reads formatted data from the keyboard. Formatted output : writes formatted data to the monitor.

Formatted Input and Output

Standard Output

The standard output file is the monitor. Like the keyboard, it is a text file. When you need to display data that is not text, it must be converted into to the text before it is written to the screen.

Format of printf Statement

Formatted Input (scanf)

The standard formatted input function in C is
scanf (scan formatted). scanf consists of : a format string . an address list that identifies where data are to be placed in memory.
scanf ( format string, address list ); (%c.%d..%f.., &a,.&i,..,&x..)

Format of scanf Statement

Character Test Function

It is used to test the character taken from the input. isalpha(ch) isdigit(ch) islower(ch) isupper(ch) tolower(ch) toupper(ch) etc,.

Decision Making
It is used to change the order of the program based on condition. Categories:
Sequential structure Selection structure Iteration structure Encapsulation structure

Decision Making (cont)

Sequential structure
In which instructions are executed in sequence.

Selection structure
In which instruction are executed based on the result of some condition.

Iteration structure
In which instruction are executed repeatedly.

Encapsulation structure
In which some compound structure are used.

SELECTION STRUCTURE
It allows the program to make a choice from alternative paths. C provide the following selection structures
IF statement IF ELSE statement Nested IF ELSE statement IF ELSE ladder

IF Statement
Syntax
IF (condition is true) {
Statements;
Statements False

True

If condition

Example #include<stdio.h>
#include <conio.h> void main ( ) { int a; clrscr( ); printf("\nEnter the number:"); scanf("%d",&a); if(a>10) { printf(" \n a is greater than 10"); } getch( ); }

Output
Enter the number: 12 a is greater than 10

IFELSE Statement
Syntax IF (condition) { If True False True statements; Condition } ELSE True False statements statements { False statements; }

#include<stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main ( ) { int a; clrscr( ); printf("\nEnter the number:"); scanf("%d",&a); if(a>10) { printf(" \n a is greater than 10"); } else { printf(" \n a is less than 10"); } getch( ); }

NESTED IF ELSE
If Condition 1 True True
If Condition 2

False Statements

False

True statements

False statements

NESTED IF ELSE
Syntax IF (condition1) { IF (condition2) { True statements; } ELSE { False statements; } } ELSE { False statements; }

IFELSE LADDER
TRUE

Condition 1

FALSE

TRUE Condition Statements

FALSE

2
TRUE Statements Statements

Condition 3

FALSE

Statements

Syntax IF (condition1) { statements; } else if (condition2) { statements; } else if (condition3) { statements; } else { statements; }

IFELSE LADDER

#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int m1,m2,m3; float avg; printf("\nEnter the marks:"); scanf("%d%d%d",&m1,&m2,&m3); avg=(m1+m2+m3)/3; printf("\n The average is:%f",avg); printf("\n The Grade is:"); if(avg>=60) { printf("First class"); }

Example

else if(avg>=50) { printf("Second class"); } else if(avg>=35) { printf("Thrid class"); } else { printf("Fail"); } getch(); }

Output
Enter the marks:65 75 70 The average is:70.000000 The Grade is: First class

Looping structure
It is used to execute some instructions several time based on some condition.
WHILE DoWHILE For

WHILE Loop
Syntax
.

WHILE (condition) { . Body of the loop; . }

condition
True Body of The loop

False

Example
#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int i=1,fact=1,n; printf("\nEnter the Number:"); scanf("%d",&n); while(i<=n) { fact =fact *i; i++; // i=i+1 } printf("\n The value of %d! is:%d",n,fact); getch(); }

Output
Enter the Number:3 The value of 3! is: 6

DOWHILE Loop
Syntax do { Body of the loop }while (condition);
True

Body of The loop

condition
False

for loop
Syntax for (initialization; test condition; Increment/Decrement) { Body of the loop }

for loop

Initialization

Inc / Decrement Body of the loop condition

False

Example
#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int i,fact=1,n; printf("\nEnter the Number:"); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i++) { fact =fact *i; } printf("\n The value of %d! is:%d",n,fact); getch(); }

Output
Enter the Number:3 The value of 3! is: 6

Nested for loop

Syntax for (initi; cond; Inc/Dec) { for (initi; cond; Inc/Dec) { Body of the loop

}
}

CASE structure
Switch Case 1

Case 2
Default case

CASE structure
Syntax switch (expression) { case constant 1: block1; break; case constant 2: block2; break; . . default : default block; break; }

Example
#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int i,n; printf("\nEnter the Number:"); scanf("%d",&n); switch(n) { case 1: { printf("\n Its in case 1"); break; }

case 2: { printf("\n Its in case 2"); break; } default:

{ printf("\n Its in default"); break; } } getch(); }

Output
Enter the Number:2 Its in case 2

break Statement
It is used to terminate the loop When a break statement is encountered inside a loop, then the loop is terminated.

Loops with break Statement

while(cond) { if(cond) break; }

do { if(cond) break; } while(cond);

for (initi; condt; Inc/Dec) { if(cond) break; }

Continue Statement
When a continue statement is encountered inside a loop, the control is transferred to the beginning.

Loops with continue Statement

while(cond) { if(cond) continue; }

do { if(cond) continue; } while(cond);

for (initi; condt; Inc/Dec) { if(cond) continue; }

goto Statement
When a goto statement is encountered inside a loop, the control is transferred to the beginning.

Syntax for goto Statement

label: goto label;

goto label; label:

getchar() Example
#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> #include<ctype.h> void main() { char x; printf("enter the character:"); x=getchar();

if(islower(x)) putchar(toupper(x)); else putchar(tolower(x)); getch(); }

Output: enter the character:ABC a

getche() Example
#include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main() { char c ; clrscr(); printf("\nInput a string:"); c = getche();

printf("\nstring is:"); putch(c); getch(); } Output: Input a string:k string is:k

Getch() Example
#include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main() { char c; clrscr(); printf("\nInput a string:"); c = getch();

printf("\nstring is:"); putch(c); getch(); } Output: Input a string: string is:h

getc Example
#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> #include<ctype.h> void main() { char x; printf("enter the character:"); x=getc(stdin);

if(islower(x)) putc(toupper(x),stdout); else putc(tolower(x),stdout); getch(); }

Output: enter the character:abc A

gets() Example
#include <stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { char c[80]; clrscr(); printf("Input a string:"); gets(c);

printf("The string is:"); puts(c); getch(); } Output: Input a string:qwerty The string is:qwerty

Example
#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int a,b,c,n; clrscr(); printf("\nEnter the value of a,b:"); scanf("%d%d",&a,&b); printf("\nMENU"); printf("\n1.ADD\n2.SUB\n3.MULTIPLY\n0.EXIT"); printf("\nEnter the choice:"); scanf("%d",&n);

switch(n) { case 1:
c=a+b; printf("\nThe result of Addition is:%d",c); break;

case 2:
c=a-b; printf("\nThe result of Subtraction is:%d",c); break;

case 3:

c=a*b; printf("\nThe result of Multiplication is:%d",c); break;

case 0: exit(0); break; } getch(); }

Output
Enter the value of a,b:5 6 MENU 1.ADD 2.SUB 3.MULTIPLY 0.EXIT Enter the choice:1 The result of Addition is:11

Finding Armstrong No
#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int r=0,sum=0,n,a; printf("\nEnter the number:"); scanf("%d",&n); a=n; while(n>0) { r=n%10; sum=sum+r*r*r; n=n/10; }

if(a==sum) { printf("\nIt is an armstrong number"); } else { printf("\nIt is not an armstrong number"); } getch(); }

Output
Enter the number:153 It is an armstrong number

Sum of the Digits

#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int r=0,sum=0,n; printf("\nEnter the no:"); scanf("%d",&n); while(n>0) { r=n%10;

sum=sum+r; n=n/10; } printf("sum of the digits is:%d",sum); }

Output
Enter the no:156 sum of the digits is:12

Reverse of a number
#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int r=0,sum=0,n; printf("\nEnter the no:"); scanf("%d",&n); while(n>0)

{ r=n%10; sum=sum*10+r; n=n/10; } printf("Reverse of the number is:%d",sum); getch(); }

Output
Enter the no:567 Reverse of the number is:765

Fibonacci Series
#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int f=0,f1=-1,f2=1,n,i; printf("\nEnter the number:"); scanf("%d",&n);

while(f<n) { f=f1+f2; f1=f2; f2=f; printf("\t%d",f); } getch(); }

Output
Enter the number:5 0 1 1

Swapping
#include<stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main ( ) { int a,b,c; clrscr( ); printf(" \nEnter the value of a:"); scanf("%d",&a); printf(" \nEnter the value of b:"); scanf("%d",&b); c=a; a=b; b=c;

printf(" \nThe value of a is:%d",a); printf(" \nThe value of b is:%d",b); getch( ); } Output: Enter the value of a:5 Enter the value of b:4 The value of a is:4 The value of b is:5

Swapping without using third variable

#include<stdio.h> #include <conio.h> void main ( ) { int a,b; clrscr( ); printf(" \nEnter the value of a:"); scanf("%d",&a); printf(" \nEnter the value of b:"); scanf("%d",&b);

a=a+b; b=a-b; a=a-b; printf(" \nThe value of a is:%d",a); printf(" \nThe value of b is:%d",b); getch( ); }
Output: Enter the value of a:5 Enter the value of b:6 The value of a is:6 The value of b is:5

Quadratic Equation
#include<stdio.h> #include <conio.h> #include<math.h> void main ( ) { int a,b,c,d,r1,r2; clrscr( ); printf(" \nEnter the value of a:"); scanf("%d",&a); printf(" \nEnter the value of b:"); scanf("%d",&b); printf(" \nEnter the value of c:"); scanf("%d",&c); d=b*b-4*a*c;

if(d>=0) { r1=(-b+sqrt(d))/(2*a); r2=(-b-sqrt(d))/(2*a); printf(" \nThe roots are %d,%d",r1,r2); } else { printf(" \nThe roots are imaginary"); } getch( ); }

Output
Enter the value of a:4 Enter the value of b:5 Enter the value of c:6 The roots are imaginary