Basic Terms in Logic

Michael Jhon M. Tamayao

Learning Objectives
Identify and define the basic terms in Logic. Differentiate the terms according to their use. Apply the terms in practical cases.

Introduction
Terms basic elements that make up a language system. The language of logic girds towards order.

What is LOGIC?
logos = word, reason or principle Logic science of correct reasoning. ! Systematized ! Evokes ORDER What does Logic put into order?

1.)

All men are mammals All students are men :: All students are mammals. All monkeys eat banana George Lincoln eats banana :: George Lincoln is a monkey

2.)

 What

logic puts in order is the way we reason out. Logic makes explicit the rules of reasoning.

Inference the process of deducing or extracting a statement (conclusion) from the previous statement/s. Argument the verbal expression of inference. Syllogism the format of arguments with three statements. Conclusion the statement being supported. Premises the statement/s that support/s the conclusion.

Key Terms
PREMISES CONCLUSION
SYLLOGISM

ARGUMENT

INFERENCE

What is the importance of studying the Arguments?

The answer: It is the way we support our claims to truth and validity. Truth and validity are the two aspects that measure the worth of an argument.

What is TRUTH in Logic?

Truth the correspondence or equivalence of the mind to reality/object.

Statement Object

The Horse is white

The truth value of a statement is not proven by logicians but of empirical scientists, researchers and private detectives. Logicians only study the reasoning found on statements and not the question of their truth values.

Judgment the act by which the mind affirms or denies an attribute of a subject. The simplest act of the mind in which it can attain truth. Proposition statement that affirms or denies something. verbal expression of judgment

Simple Apprehension - more elementary act of the mind than judgment conceiving a notion of something. The Horse is white. verbally expressed as a term/name. Terms the two notions in a proposition: subject and predicate

Acts of the Mind

Simple Apprehension

Verbal Expression
Term/Name

Judgment

Proposition
Inference Argument/Syllogism

Propositions: Quality and Quantity

1. Quality affirmative negative Affirmative - predicate is affirmed of the
subject. ex. The audience is kind.

Negative - predicate is denied of the subject.

ex. The audience is not kind.

2. Quantity universal or particular Universal the predicate is affirmed or denied of the whole subject.
Ex. All men are beings with heart.
Not all men are beings with heart.

Particular the predicate is affirmed or denied of only part of the subject.

Ex. Some men are haughty.

Four-fold Scheme of Proposition

A-type: universal and affirmative

All men are mortal

I-type: Particular and Affirmative

Some men are philosophers

E-type: Universal and Negative

Not all philosophers are rich.

O-type: Particular and Negative

Some men are not rich.

Terms also have quantity but not quality Singular terms ex. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle Universal Terms ex. Men, horse

What is meant by VALIDITY?

An argument is valid if the premises do provide conclusive grounds for the conclusion. Otherwise, the argument is invalid. Validity follows the different rules of inference.

 Validity

pertains to arguments/reasoning. Truth pertains to propositions. Logic has for its first principle the independence of truth and validity.

Independence of truth from validity

Example: All men are animals All creatures are men FALSE ::All creatures are animals.

Although two statements are false, the argument is still valid.

Key Terms
TRUTH and VALIDITY
simple apprehension Judgment inference

Sound Argument the reasoning in the argument is valid and all the statements are true. Example:

All computers are technological products All abacuses are computers :: All abacuses are technological products.

2 Kinds of Arguments
1.) Deductive argument - An argument that has premises which gives conclusive grounds for the truth of the conclusion, or if the premises claim to support the conclusion with necessity. - The process is exact.
e.g. All priests are humans. All Popes are priests. :: All Popes are humans.

2.) Inductive Argument - Makes the wilder claim that its premises support but do not guarantee the necessity of its conclusion. - The conclusion is only given a high probability of correctness and not exactly valid or invalid.
Ex. Of all the 50 million swans I saw, nothing is black. :: No swan is black.

Key Terms
DEDUCTIVE
Exact
Valid

INDUCTIVE
Probable
Strong

or invalid Not a matter of degree (All or Nothing)

or weak A matter of degree (More or Less)

What is a FALLACY?

Fallacy bad method of argument, whether deductive or inductive. one or more of its premises are false, or the reasoning from them may be invalid, or the language expressing them may be ambiguous or vague. typical faults in arguments that sounds persuasive.

Ex.

All Stars are hot. I am a Star. :: I am hot.

There is ambiguity in the meaning of the word star.

Recap
Logic the science of correct reasoning. Inference the process of deducing or extracting a statement (conclusion) from the previous statement/s. Argument is a kind of reasoning/inference in which statements are offered to support or justify another statement. Syllogism the format of arguments with three statements.

Conclusion the statement being supported. Premises the statement/s that support/s the conclusion. Truth the correspondence or equivalence of the mind to reality/object. Judgment the act by which the mind affirms or denies an attribute of a subject. Propositions verbal expression of judgments.

Simple Apprehension conceiving of the notion of something. Term verbal expression of notions. Quality may either be affirmative or negative. Quantity may either be universal or particular.

Valid argument an argument which has premises that provide conclusive grounds for its conclusion. Sound Argument an argument with valid reasoning and all its statements are true. Deductive argument an argument with premises that claim to support the conclusion with necessity.

Inductive Argument argument with premises that support but do not guarantee the necessity of its conclusion. Fallacy a bad argument that has one or more false statements and/or invalid reasoning that sounds persuasive.

END Thank you for listening!