Reference Book: By:

Understanding and using English Grammar Betty Schrampfer Azar

Grammar
It is generally believed that grammar is taken form

glamour first

it came from Greek (grammatika), then Latin (grammatica), in French (gramaire) and in English (grammar) that means the art of letters and alphabets. Dionysius, the first Greek grammarian, who wrote The Art of Grammar in the history. The first English grammar, Pamphlet for Grammar by William Bullokar, was published in 1586

English (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes)

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WHAT IS GRAMMAR?
Definitions:

The structure of a language A system that tells how to speak and write correctly. The rules in a language for changing the form of words and joining them into sentences. The formation of words (morphology) and their interrelation in sentence (syntax). The study of grammar reveals how a language works.
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What is a sentence & it kinds?

Sentence: A group of words that make complete sense & meaning Example: Color blue favorite is My. (makes no sense, therefore it is not a sentence) My favorite color is blue. (makes complete sense, therefore it is a sentence) There are four kinds of sentences: 1. Assertive or declarative sentence 2. Imperative sentence 3. Interrogative sentence 4. Exclamatory sentence

(a statement) (a command) (a question) (an exclamation)

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1. An assertive sentence is a sentence that states a fact, assert, or declare something.

Examples:
Jan is a student. She lives in a big city. He plays a game in the ground. 2. Imperative sentence is a sentence which gives a command, makes a request, or express a wish.

Examples:
Go to your room. (an order) Please, lend me your book. (a request) Have a good time at the picnic. (a wish)

3. Exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses sudden and strong feelings, such as surprise, wonder, sympathy or happiness. Example: What a shame! Boy, am I tired! woo! He lost the car 4. Interrogative sentence: A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence.
Examples: What is your name? Where do you live? Does she live near to me?

Read the following sentences and select the correct answer

Q 1: Would you please pass the salt?
Exclamatory Imperative Interrogative Assertive or Declarative

Q 2: I am ten years old.

Imperative Exclamatory Interrogative Assertive or Declarative

Q 3: I didn't have time to finish my homework last night.

Assertive or Declarative Interrogative Imperative Exclamatory

Q 4: Harry, try the other door.

Imperative Assertive or Declarative Exclamatory Interrogative
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Q 5: Stay in your seat.

Assertive or Declarative Exclamatory Interrogative Imperative

Q 6: What a beautiful painting!

Imperative Interrogative Assertive or Declarative Exclamatory

Q 7: Why didn't you come to school today?

Assertive or Declarative Interrogative Imperative Exclamatory

Q 8: Do you want to play?

Interrogative Exclamatory Imperative Assertive or Declarative
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Parts of a sentence
Subject + Predicate/Predication ()

Subject
It means the name of someone, something, someplace and any idea. He plays the game. They wash the plates. She cooks the rice.

Predicate Predication
After the subject if the reaming sentence has only one main verb, then it is called predicate. After the subject if the remaining sentence has more than one main verb, then it is called predication (predicate) (predicate)

He had given the girl an apple. They are playing games in the stadium. (the underline is predication) We have won the match the tournament. She has been watching the movie since morning.

Exercise
Find out in the following Subject , Predicate and Predication. 1. The boy stood on the burning deck. 2. Stone walls do not make a prison. 3. Nature is the best physician. 4. Kitty was rude at the table. 5. We can not pump the ocean dry. 6. Borrowed garments never fit well. 7. The early bird catches the worm. 8. A guilty conscience needs no excuse. 9. No man can serve two masters. 10. On the top of the hill lives a hermit. 11. They are playing games at evening in the ground. 12. She had read the magazine.
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Parts of Speech
(A)

Words are divided into different kinds or classes, called Parts of Speech. They are eight in number: Noun- John, room, Kabul, computer. Adjective- happy, steady, new, large, round Adverb- steadily, completely, really, very, then (open system) Verb- search, grow, be, have, do, work
Noun (thing-process) Production Induction (admit) Noun (person) Producer inductor Adjective Productive inductive Verb Produce induct Adverb Productively inductively

(B)

Article- the, a, an Pronoun- he, they, we, which, one, anybody Preposition- of, at, in, without, in spite of Conjunction- and, that, when, although, but Interjection- oh, ah, ugh, phew.

(closed system)
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1. Noun (Latin nomen, name) It is a word used as the name of a person, place, thing or any idea as, Mohammad is a good student Kabul is an ancient city. The sun shines bright. Strength is power 2. Adjective It is a word which gives extra meaning to the noun or pronoun; as, He is a boy He is a brave boy. There are twenty boys in this class. She is an intelligent student They are fast runners.
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3. Pronoun It is a word which is used instead of a noun; as, Khalid is absent, because he is ill. The students lost their papers so they were worried us a lot.
4. Verb It is a word which expresses an action or state; as, The girl wrote a letter to her cousin. Afghanistan is a big state. We convey the massage to the class.

He, she, it, they, I, we, you,

5. Adverb It is a word which gives extra meaning to a verb, an adjective, adverb; as, He went to the school quickly. This flower is very beautiful. (Intensifier adverb) She pronounced the word quite correctly. (Intensifier adverb)
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6. Interjection It is a word which expresses sudden feelings and emotions; as, Hurrah ! We have won the game. (ah, oh, whew, yeah, ) Alas ! She is dead.

7. Conjunction It is a word used to join words or sentences; as, Ahmad and Hassan are cousins. I ran fast, but missed the train.
Addition Also And Contrast But However Choice Eitheror Neither.. Nor Result Accordingly Consequently

As well as
Besides Both

Nevertheless
Still yet

Or
otherwise

For
Hence So therefore
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8.

Preposition

Prepositions are a class of words that indicate relationships between nouns, pronouns and other words in a sentence. Most often they come before a noun.

There is a cow in the garden. The girl is fond of music. The cat sleeps under the bed. Ali is sitting between john and Ahmad.

About Above
Across After Against Along Around At (particular)

Beside Between
Beyond Below Behind Down From In (general)

Inside Into
Near Of Off Out On outside

Over To
Toward Under With Upon Within without
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Simple Prepositions:
Prepositions which consists only one word e.g. in, on, at, with, against etc..,
He is now at home. We are sitting on the top of the roof. Ahmad is playing game with his younger brother in the ground. The book is on the table. The book is beside the table. She read the book during class. The spider crawled slowly along the banister (railing) .

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Compound or double prepositions:

They are more than one word. in between and because of are prepositions made up of two words - in front of, on behalf of are prepositions made up of three words. They were in the middle of the roads. I decided to go back to my party Instead of buying the compute. The book is in between War and Peace and The Lord of the Rings. The book is in front of the clock. The children climbed the mountain without fear. There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated
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Preposition with Adjective.

Prepositions are used with some adjectives. The adjectives in these examples are printed in color.

Dad was angry with us. We were afraid of the big dog. Shes not very interested in sports. John is very good at drawing. Muhammad is pleased with our work. The teachers are always kind to us. Whats wrong with the computer?
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Preposition with Verb

Prepositions are used with some verbs. They are called phrasal verb (non-separable and separable) Im looking for my pencil. Have you seen it? (non-separable) Can you think of another word for pleased? (non-separable) Does this book belong to you? (non-separable) Were listening to the music. (non-separable) I agree with you. (non-separable) Tell me about the show you saw. (separable) Cut the cake into five pieces. (separable) They borrowed money from the bank. (separable)
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Preposition with Nouns

Prepositions are used with some nouns. The nouns in these examples are printed in color. Whats the answer to this question? Is there a reason for this delay? Whats the matter with you? Heres an example of good behavior. Congratulations on winning the competition! Traffic can cause damage to the environment.
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Kinds of Nouns
1. Proper Noun It is a noun which gives us particular name of thing, place and person. Kabul is a big city. Karzai is the president of Afghanistan. Quran is the religious book of Islam. Egypt is the ancient city of the world. 2. Common Noun This noun refers to every common thing, place, and person. I dont like this chair. My book is outdated. This city has no opportunity. Our language can easily spread if we get sience and technology.
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3.

Collective Noun

(with many exceptions)

The name of a number (or collection) of persons or things taken together of as one whole; the verb of the collective noun can be either singular or plural, depending on its

meaning in a sentence; The singular verb means a group as a unit. The plural verb means the individual member or parts of the group.

Common Collective Nouns

Army, assembly, audience, band, class, club, committee, crowd, family, fleet, , flock, group, herd, jury, public, staff, swarm, team, troop

A herd of cattle is passing. Our army is very committed and loyal. The team has won the semifinals. The class meets Monday, and Friday. The herd were separated by the rising of water. The class usually bring their calculators with them. The team have voted twenty to three to buy new uniforms.

(the herd as a unit) (as a unit) (as a unit) (as a unit) (the individuals) (the individuals) (the individuals) 22

Some nouns that are plural in form take singular verbs.

The following nouns take singular verbs.
Civics Economics Electronics Genetics Gymnastics Mathematics Measles (red rash-disease marks) Molasses (juice) Mumps News Physics Summons (court orders)

Mumps is usually more severe in adults than in children. Economics was my favorite subject when I was a student in collage. Some nouns that refer to singular items take plural verbs.
Binoculars (optical for distance) Eyeglasses Pliers (pincer to grip) Scissors Shears trousers

The binoculars are on the screened porch (veranda). The shears have not been sharpened ever by the barber.
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4. Abstract Noun It is usually the name of a quality, action, or state which can
not be touched ----seen-----smelled-------tasted as; Abstract nouns are made from the following: (noun/adjective/verb) Quality--(adjective) goodness, kindness, darkness, brightness, happiness. Action--(Verb) theft, movement, judgment, hatred, pleasure, composition. State--(Noun) childhood, boyhood, youth, sickness, death and poverty, purity.

1. 2. 3.

He is a good boy. I like his goodness. They move to the city. Their movement is very slow. She died in the bomb blast. Her death is unforgettable for us.

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5. Countable Nouns:
The names of objects, people, etc. that we can count, e.g., book, pen, apple, boy, sister, doctor, horse.

6. Uncountable Nouns:
The names of things which we cannot count, e.g., milk, gold, sugar, oil, honesty, water, butter etc

7.Compound Nouns:
Those nouns which are formed by the combination of two or more than two as, drawingroom, housewife, Englishman, chairman
One word Separate words
Hyphenated word

Stairway, bookcase, lighthouse, housewife, toothpaste Lieutenant governor, ceiling fan, gate way
Sister-in-law, jack-of-all-trades, great-uncle
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Noun Gender
1. Masculine Gender: sometimes a noun denotes a male gender as, boy, brother, father, widower, emperor and prince, lion, dog, host, actor etc. 2. Feminine Gender: there are many nouns which only represent female gender as; girl, sister, mother, widow, empress, lioness, bitch, hostess , actress and princess etc. 3. Common Gender: if there are nouns which elaborate both male and female are called common gender as; cousin, friend, student and baby, parent etc.

4. Neuter Gender: sometimes we denote a non-living being is called neuter gender as; book, table and pen.

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Rules for making nouns (singular and plural)

Rule No.1 (Add s to the end of noun)
Singular student cup computer Plural Students Cups computers

Rule No.2 consonants before y change y to i and add es city -cities party- parties lady-ladies Rule No.3 vowels before y add s boy (boys),key (keys), day (days),donkey (donkeys)

Rule No. 4 (f and fe endings) change the (ves)

Life Wife Thief Lives Wives thieves

Rule No. 5 (sh, ch, x, ss endings) add es

Bush Match Bushes Matches

Box
Kiss

boxes
kisses

Rule No. 6 (consonant + o) add es (vowel +o) s (with exceptions)

Tomato/echo Potato Radio Mento (Jamaican music) Motto (belief or idea) Tomatoes/echoes Potatoes Radios mentos Mottos (mottoes)

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Irregular plural forms (exceptions)

Child Foot Man Woman Mouse Tooth Fish People Goose Ox Sheep Children Feet Men Women Mice Teeth Fish/ fishes People/ peoples Geese Oxen sheep

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Common Noun-forming Suffixes()

-ance -ence -ion -ty, -ity -ment -ness -al -er -or -eer attendance, appliance reference, evidence inspection, persuasion loyalty, clarity statement, pavement goodness, shyness survival, revival maker, singer actor, realtor (state agent) Musketeer (solider) racketeer (fraudulentfraud/ dishonest/ ) -ant, -ent -ism -asm -ee -ist -ship -hood -acy -ian contestant, resident patriotism, communism enthusiasm trainee, referee violinist, journalist, artist friendship, comradeship neighborhood, parenthood democracy, fallacy () librarian, libertarian

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Exercise
Use the plural form to fill in the blanks. (provided list) Baby They have one girl and two ______. Boy I visited many _______ last year. City She lost the _____ of the car and the house. Country _____ ride horses in Texas. Lady Madrid and Paris are beautiful _______. Party We must bring ______ to the English class. Tray Good evening _____ and gentlemen. Key On Saturday nights, I like to go to _______. Dictionary People carry their food on _____ at the cafeteria. cowboy
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Change the following verb or adjective into abstract noun.

Verb or adjective
We were different from each other. My work is precise.

Abstract noun
It is the _________between us. I work with _____________.

The air is pure I composed this tune

It is so beautiful. You have pleased me. He inspected well in the examination. They attend few classes in the summer. Our students are very loyal.

The _________ of the air............... This tune is my ________.

It has such ___________. The _________ you have given to me. I like his ______________. Their ________is very less in the classes. The principle appreciated their ________.

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Exercise
Point out common, proper, collective, countable, uncountable and abstract nouns in the following sentences; 1. The crowd was very big. 2. We all love honesty. 3. The elephant has great strength. 4. We saw a fleet of ships in the harbor. 5. He gave me a bunch of grapes of childhood. 6. I often think of the happy days. 7. I recognized his voice at once. 8. A committee of five was appointed. 9. What is your verdict, gentlemen of the jury? 10. The class is studying grammar. 11. The army have many sophisticated weapons. 12. England has the best light house of the world. 13. Water, water everywhere but not a single drop to drink.

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Nouns and Case

Case is that form of a noun or a pronoun which shows its relationship to other words in the sentence. There are three cases:
1.

Subjective (nominative)

2.
3.

Objective. (accusative)
Possessive

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Subjective Case or nominative Nouns may function as a:Subject;

The computer has streamlined many business transactions. Students enjoyed reading Macbeth.(subject) Ali has won the game. The marker has lost its nib . Kabul has a very ancient history. Beauty needs no decoration. The sun shines bright. Strength is power. The sleepers should not be disturbed by listening load music.

1.

The tree fell on my car.

The girls own this web site.
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2. Objective Case (accusative)

we have two objective cases for a noun (indirect living ,direct--nonliving) The underline is non-living objective cases of a noun I wrote a letter to Ahmad. (direct or non-living object) They give an apple to Ahmad. (direct or non-living object) I saw my friend in the market. (direct or non-living object) We lost the button of the coat. (direct or non-living object)

Subject and verb

The officer handed The invention made I mailed I have posted

Indirect object
Mr. Ali him Her my brother

Direct object
A ticket for speeding. two million dollars. the letter yesterday. The mail .

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3. Possessive Case
1. Singular possessive: This is Ahmads car. Shazia washed the babys rattles. (container for babies toys) 2. Plural possessive: The students playground was closed for the game. The scouts fund raiser earned enough money for summer camp. 3. Separate possession: The judge will score Petes and Jims dives in the competition. 4. Joint possession: Muhammad and Ahmads dinner party was a huge success.

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Practice in Finding Direct and Indirect Objects

They allotted her ten points. The traitor told him the truth. Jose quickly handed the bat to the batter. Ahmad passed the salt to Jane. Give me that! Our neighbors lent us their car. Sara sent Jim a package. Tell them the answers. Give the instructions to them. Did you pay Jim his money? The salesman made a great sale. The artist drew a picture of her. The artist drew her a picture. He would not show me the magic trick. Wali threw a foul ball.

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Adjective with classification

Examples:
1. 2. 3.

Maria is a clever girl. ( Girl of what kind ?) He gave me five mangoes. ( How many mangoes ?) There is little time for prepartion. ( How much time? )

Adjective can be used Attributively ( when it is used before a noun. E.g. He is a lazy boy. She is a punctual student. There is a beautiful sunset. Adjective can be used Predicatively ,when it is used after the noun or pronoun. E.g. He is lazy. She is punctual. Ahmad is intelligent. The student is very small. The sunset was beautiful.
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Kinds of Adjectives
Adjectives may be divided into the following classes: 1. Adjectives of Quality (Descriptive Adjective) which show the kind of quality /describes a person or thing ; as, Kabul is a large city. He is an honest man. It is a black marker. They are intelligent students. She is a clever girl. 2. Adjectives of Quantity show much of a thing is meant as; I ate some rice. He has little intelligence. He claimed his half share of the booty. I dont need any money.
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3. Adjectives of Number show how many persons or things are meant; as,
The hand has five fingers. Two men may die. I bought four cars from Canada. we have seven students in the evening class. 4. Definite Numeral Adjectives, which denote an exact number: as,
One, two, three, etc.
First, second, third, etc.
These are called Cardinals (number quantity).
These are called Ordinal (things in series ).

He has three books. He got the first position in the class. we got the third prize in the previous competition. They have defeated me on the fourth time.
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5. Indefinite Numeral Adjectives, which do not denote an exact number;

as,
All, no, many, few, some, any, several, certain

All students have completed the task. Many cars were damaged in the explosion. Any boy may stay in the class.
The same Adjectives may be classed as of Quality or Number, according to its use.
Adjectives of Quantity Adjectives of Number (indefinite) I ate some rice. He has lost all his wealth. You have no sense. He did not eat any rice. I have enough sugar. Some boys are clever. All men must die. There are no pictures in this book. Are there any mango-trees in this garden? There are not enough spoons.
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6. Demonstrative Adjectives point out which person or thing is meant;

This These That Those

They have double functions and can be used as adjective and pronouns

Demonstrative Adjective
This boy is stronger than Haris. These rascals (knave) must be punished. That car is very old model. Those books are for computers.

Demonstrative Pronoun
This is a book. These are my friends. That is a beautiful picture Those are weak students in the class.
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7. Interrogative Adjectives refer to ask questions; as they can be

used adjective and pronoun both

Interrogative Adjective
What manner of man is he? Which way shall we go?
Whose book is this? Which dog is yours? Where Ali drives the car? Which coat is Mahmoods? What CD is Sarah listening to? Which vitamins should be taken every day?

Interrogative Pronouns
What are you doing? Who is with you?
When do we go to Ohio? Why are we so alone? Which one do you want to buy? Where is your horse? What are you doing this weekend?

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Pick out all the Adjectives in the following sentences, and say to which class each of them belongs:-

1. 2. 3. 4.

5.
6. 7.

8.
9. 10.

The ship sustained heavy damage. Ahmad won the second prize. He is a man of few words. That cross child is not liked. Which pen do you prefer? Several persons were present at the time. He was a hearty king. He loved a royal sport. Why he died of a glorious death? He is not a small kid.

(des:) (num-ord:) (qan:) (dem:) (interr:) (inde-num:) (qali:) (qali:) (interr-des) (des:)
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Noun
Boy Fool Care Play Hope Venture Trouble Shame Sense Silk Gold

Adjective
Boyish Foolish Careful Playful Hopeful Venturesome Troublesome Shameless Senseless Silken golden

Noun
Dirt Storm Pardon Laugh Outrage courage Glory Envy Man King Gift

Adjective
Dirty Stormy Pardonable Laughable Outrageous Courageous Glorious Envious Manly Kingly gifted

Verb Tire Talk

Adjective

Adjective Tragic Whole

Adjective Tragical Wholesome

Adjective Adjective Black White Blackish Whitish

Tireless Talkative Cease Ceaseless move moveable

Three

Threefold

sick

sickly
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Comparison of Adjectives (Degrees) Ahmads mango is sweet. (positive) Hassans mango is sweeter than Ahmad. (comparative) Alis mango is the sweetest of all. (superlative)
1. Most Adjectives of one syllable, and some more than one, form the comparative by adding er and the superlative by adding est or more and the most to the positive. 2. Besides, we have irregular comparison where we can use er and est/ more and the most with comparative and superlative adjectives as, Good-better-best, many-more-most, little-less-least ill-worseworst.
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Positive
Big Small Late Neat Warm Fast strong

Comparative
Bigger Smaller Later Neater Warmer Faster Stronger

Superlative
The
Latest Neatest Warmest Fastest Strongest Biggest Smallest

than

Exercise: use comparative and superlative degree

weak Modest Curious-strange Proud Thin Good Gentle
Abrupt sudden

quick easy cold glorious fierce cruel bad jealous envious

sour

magnificent polite placid peaceful swift delightful many warm

neat
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Exercise
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.
7. 8. 9. 10.

Supply the proper form of Adjectives in the followings: Good-How is your brother to-day? Is he ____ now? Hot-May is__ here than any other month. RichHe is the __man in our town. GoodHe is the ___ friend I have. Beautiful- She is more___ than her younger sister. Light-Silver is__ than gold. ProudIt was the ____ moment of his life. UsefulIron is the ___ of all metals. PrettyHer doll is___ than yours. TallHe is the ___ of the class.
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Pronouns

Definition Personal pronouns (subjective / objective) Possessive pronouns/ Adjective Reflexive Indefinite Interrogative Demonstrative Relative Reciprocal

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Pronoun with classifications

Pronoun: A word which is used instead of a noun
It can be divided into the following categories; Personal pronouns: which stand for the persons in the subjective case.

Subjective
I, we, you, he, she, it, they
1. 2. 3.

Objective
Me, us, you, him, her, it, them

4.
5. 6.

He is a student. You are a boy. We go to school every day. I am young boy. It is very outdated. They are young.

I call him. We call you. She calls us. You call me. She knows it. You call them.
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Use the correct personal pronouns. Watch the words in brackets.

Example: ___ often reads books. (Lisa) Answer: She often reads books.

1)_____________ is dreaming. (George) 2) _____________ is green. (the blackboard) 3) _____________ are on the wall. (the posters) 4) _____________ is running. (the dog) 5) _____________are watching TV. (my mother and I) 6) _____________ are in the garden. (the flowers) 7) _____________ is riding his bike. (Tom) 8) _____________ is from Bristol. (Victoria) 9) _____________has got a brother. (Diana) 10) Has___________________ got a computer, Malika?

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Which object form of the personal pronoun can substitute the underlined phrase in the sentence?
1) The teacher always gives the students homework. (me, them and you)

2) I am reading the book to my little sister. (her, us and him)

3) The boys are riding the bikes. (it, them and her) 4) My father is writing a letter to John. (me, her, him) 5) I don't know the answer. (she, her, it) 6) Sally is going to Alia. (her, him and me) 7) Open the window, please. (it , them and us) 8) Can you tell the people the way to the airport, please? (you, them and us) 9) The books are for Peter. (him, her and your) 10) Can you help my sister and me, please? (her, me and us)
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Impersonal pronoun. It is used for living/nonliving/season/timeetc:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

It is a cub. It is a sweet baby. It is a marker. It is winter. It is ten oclock.

Reflexive pronoun. (Emphatic):When the action is done by the subject and turn back (reflects) upon the subject; as
Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves and themselves
1. 2.

3.
4. 5. 6.

She saw herself in the mirror. He catches the ball by himself. You will carry the conference yourself (yourselves). The horse hurts itself. We listen the music ourselves. They paint the wall themselves
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Choose the correct reflexive pronoun from the given.

myself - yourself - himself - herself - itself - ourselves - yourselves - themselves
1)

2)
3) 4) 5)

6)
7) 8) 9)

10)

Robert made this T-shirt ________________. Lisa did the homework _________________. We helped _______________ while getting some cola at the party. Emma, did you take the photo all by ______________ ? I wrote this poem _________________ . He cut ________ with the knife while he was doing the dishes. The lion can defend _______________ . My mother often talks to _________________ . Tim and Gerry, if you want more milk, help ______________ . Alice and Doris collected the stickers _______________ .

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Demonstrative pronoun. It is used to show the object about which we are talking.
This These That those

Demonstrative pronouns
This is a present from my father

Demonstrative adjective
This pen is very expensive.

That is your car.

These are students. Those are lights. This is the book.

That book is mine.

These students are very intelligent. Those lights are useless. This chair is black.

These are very expensive books.

Those are good students.

Those cars are ours.

These papers are cheap.

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Possessive pronoun. Certain pronouns called possessive pronouns/adjective show ownership. Some are used alone; some describe a noun.

Note that none of the possessive pronouns are spelled with an apostrophe.
Possessive pronoun/used alone
mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, (whose) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. That computer is hers. That computer is mine. That computer is his. That computer is ours. That computer is theirs. My book is very expensive.

Possessive Adjective/Modify noun

my, your, his, her, its, our, their, (whose) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Their cars are not starting at the morning. His class is looking empty always. Our room is enlightened by various bulbs. Her book is lost on the way when she was coming to the university. My computer is not working now.

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Possessive Pronouns
Replace the personal pronouns by possessive pronouns.

1. 2. 3. 4.

This book is (you) yours . The ball is (I) ________ . The blue car is (we) ________. The ring is (she) ________ .

5. We met Ali and Hassan last night. This house is (they) ___ .

6. The luggage is (he) ________ . 7. The pictures are (she) ________ . 8. In our garden is a bird. The nest is (it) _______ . 9. This cat is (we) ________ . 10. This was not my fault. It was (you) ________ .
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Relative pronoun. It refers or relates to some noun going before; as, Function in a sentence People Subjective Objective Possessive
Who/that Who/that/ whom whose Things Which/that Which/that Whose/of which where when why Place time Reason

I met Ali. He had just returned. I met Ali who/that had just returned. Ali who/that had just returned I met. I have a pen. It has white color. I have the pen which/that has white color. The pen which/that has white color I have.

(British format) (American format)

(British format) (American format)

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Examples:
This is the question. Its solution has confused the philosopher. (possessive case) This is the question whose solution has confused the philosopher. This is the question of which solution has confused the philosopher. The family was immediately given a room. Their house burnt in the fire. The family was immediately given a room whose house burnt in the fire. The family whose house burnt in the fire was immediately given a room. This is the place . I spent my salad days. This is the place where I spent my salad days. The place where I spent my salad day is this .
That is the boy. You are talking about him
That is the boy about whom you are talking. That is the boy whom you are talking about. That is the boy(*) you are talking about. (formal/dative case ) (informal /spoken) (reduction case)
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Relative pronouns-------- (Adjective Clause/relative pronoun)

That Examples: Who Which Whom Whose

I thanked the woman. She helped me.

I thanked the woman who (that) helped me.

The book is mine. It is on the table.

The book which(that) is on the table is mine. The man was Ahmad. I saw him. The man who(m)(that)(*) I saw was Ahmad. She is the woman. I told you about her. She is the woman about whom I told you. She is the woman who(m) I told you about. She is the woman I told you about. She is the woman that /(*) I told you about.

I know the man. His bicycle was stolen. I know the man whose bicycle was stolen.
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Put in the relative who, which or whose where necessary. Type an x if the relative pronoun can be left out.

Example: Peter is the boy ____ rides the blue bike. Answer: Peter is the boy who/that rides the blue bike.
1) This is the boy _________ had an accident. 2) Yesterday I saw a car _________ was really old. 3) Mandy is the girl _________ I met on Friday. 4) I haven't seen Frank, _________ brother is five, for a long time now. 5) The robber stole the car _________ the lady parked in front of the supermarket. 6) This is the man _________ house is on fire. 7) Can I talk to the girl _________ is sitting on the bench? 8) The book _________ you gave me is great. 9) She likes hamburgers _________ are hot. 10) Bill Clinton, _________ was President of the USA, has only one daughter.

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Interrogative Pronoun
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. The words who, whose, what, which and whom are interrogative pronouns.

Examples:

Who used all my paper? Who is Mom talking to? Who are those people? Whose are these shoes? What does Tom want? What is the date today? When will she meet us? Why did our student get the strike ? What is the capital of Afghanistan? Whose is this red sweater? Whom should I direct you to call? Which is your car? Who is his relative in the class?

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Reciprocal Pronoun. (we can mostly use in objective case)

We use the reciprocal pronouns to indicate that two people can carry out an action and get the consequences of that action at the same time. There are two reciprocal pronouns:

Each other (for two person)

One another (more than two)

For example: On their wedding day Jhon gave Mary a gold ring and Mary gave Jhon a gold ring. On their wedding day Mary and Jhon gave each other gold rings. Peter and Mary slapped each other. If you need to refer to more than two people, say the students in a classroom, then we could use the reciprocal pronoun, "one another". For example: The students in this classroom cooperate with one another. The teachers gathered to congratulate one another on the year's conclusion.
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Common Indefinite pronouns (some of them can be used as adjectives)

All Another Both Each Few Many Nobody None Several Some

Any
Anybody Anyone Anything

Either
Everybody Everyone Everything

More
Most Much Neither

No one
Nothing One Other

Somebody
Someone Something Such

All is well that ends well. (Shakespeare) One must not boast of ones (his) own success. Nobody was there to rescue the child. Many were absent in the evening class. Is anybody here inside? None knows about his mistake. Anything can happen during democratic regime (government). Some are born great. Few escaped unhurt.
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Exercise
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9.
10.

Write the correct form of pronoun in the followings: We scored as many goals as___ (they- them) scored last time. Can you sing as well as ____ (they- them) sing? Nobody but ___ was present (he-him). We always like boys__ speak the truth. ( who-which) Here is the pen___ you lost. (which-who) Time ____ is lost, is never found again. (that-who) ___ do you wish to see me? (when-what) _____ did you find there? (who-why) ___ is an island? ( where-who) ___ stole the birds nest ? (who-when)
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Fill the blanks with suitable relative pronouns or W.H if they are necessary:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

We always like boys ________ speak the truth. We saw the dog __________ worried the cat. He ______ does his best shall be praised. I know _________ you mean. She has gone to China, ___________ is her birthplace. I dont know the man ______ hit the boy. He is the man _______ you can trust. Did you receive the letter_________ I sent yesterday. Most people get _______ they deserve. _______ you say is not true. He says ________ he means, and means ____ he says. That is the place ___________ he was born. Only he _______bears the burden knows its weight.
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Verb with classifications

Verb comes from the Latin word verbum which means to show action or state: What a person or thing does (action) ; as, 1. Hussain plays football at the morning. 2. The clock strikes everyday . 3. She washes the plates daily. 4. We write the messages. What is done to a person or thing, (state / condition / existence) as; 1. The window is broken. 2. Wahab is sick today. 3. She is a teacher. 4. I am absent in the class. 5. We are students in the evening session.
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Transitive verb (it means which can receive object and can be changed into
passive.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The boy kicks the ball. She wrote a letter. We lost the car They play the volleyball. Ahmad painted the wall.

Objects

Intransitive verb (it means a verb which can not have an object
and cant be changed into passive). 1. The baby is healthy. 2. He ran a long distance.
3. 4.

(state) (action)
(action) (action)
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She sleeps at night. We go to school everyday.

Auxiliaries/ Helping verbs (Be) IS ARE AM WAS WERE BEEN BEING

Primary Auxiliaries DO DOES DID HAS HAVE HAD

Modal Auxiliaries CAN COULD MAY MIGHT WILL WOULD HAS TO HAVE TO HAD TO OUGHT TO SHALL SHOULD NEED DARE

They can be used as a main verb and also as helping verb.

They can be used as a main verb and also as helping verb.

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Auxiliaries(Helping Verb)
Be
(is/am/are/was/were/been and being) They can be used as a main verb and helping verb. As a Main Verb: (denote existence and mental condition)
1.

2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

He is a carpenter. I am a teacher. We are students. He was tall and fair. The roads were rough and narrow. She is cold/hot. He was excited/calm.

(mental condition) (mental condition)

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Be
(is/am/are/was/were/been and being)
As a Helping Verb in progressive tenses: 1. He is learning English grammar. 2. I am teaching Accounting in the morning classes. 3. They are watching movies now. 4. She was waiting for me last time. 5. They were playing the games last Friday. 6. We have been in London for many years.

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Primary Auxiliaries
They can be used as a main verb and also as helping verb.

DO/DOES/DID/HAS/HAVE/HAD
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

As a main verb: I do my assignment everyday. She does her job very well. We did the task last night. She has a very expensive car. I have a marker now. They had a book last time.
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They can be used as a main verb and also as helping verb.

DO/DOES/DID/HAS/HAVE/HAD
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

As a helping verb: I dont complete my task now. She does not work in the class. Ahmad did not study the book last night. She has lost the wallet. We have visited the city. He had bought the car when he was very young.

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exercise
Name the verb in the following sentences, whether it is Transitive or Intransitive:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

The sun shines brightly. Put away your books. The birds sing in the green trees. Ali wrote a letter to his uncle. The dog ran very fast last time. I could not send a letter now. An old beggar stood by the gate. The clock ticks all day long. The cat sleeps on the rug. I go to school everyday. We brought the latest computer. The students completed their assignments.

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Adverb
Adverb is a word which describes a verb, adjective, another adverb as,
Ahmad sings slowly. (verb) 2. Ahmad speaks very nice. (adjective)Intensifier Adverb 3. You are very tall. (adjective)Intensifier Adverb 4. Ahmad speaks very slowly. (another adverb) Intensifier Adverb 5. They are walking very quickly. (another adverb) Intensifier Adverb
1.

Adverbs sometimes modify phrases.

Probably he is mistaken. Possibly it is as you say.

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Kinds of Adverb
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Adverb of Time: it shows when an action happened I will meet you later. Now I can't call you. They will sing soon. I wrote to him yesterday.

Time
Saturday and Sunday Today Yesterday Next week/month/year Last week/month/year Finally Eventually Already Soon Just Still

examples
I am going to the shops on Monday. I've been to the shops today. I went yesterday. I am going next week. I went last year. I finally went I eventually went to the shops. I've already been to the shops I'm going to the shops soon. I'm just going to the shops. I'm still at the shops
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2.
1. 2. 3. 4.

Adverb of Place: it shows where an action has occurred as; Backwards/forwards/downwards/upwards/inwards/outwards She sits there. Below the chair, the cat sleep. Come here. The school is near. Examples The children were playing upstairs The people demonstrated in London. The children were playing outside. she went away. He lives abroad. Ahmad is upstairs. They climbed uphill.

Place Upstairs In London Outside Away Abroad Upstairs Uphill Backwards

She fell backwards.

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3.
1. 2.

Adverb of Manner: it shows how an action is happened and we use ly to

convert adjective into adverb as;
John smiled uneasily. Uneasily shows the manner of how John smiled Najib writes slowly. You walked last night rapidly. Sheila teaches quickly. Ali cries shrilly. We speak English fluently. The music played loudly. He acted foolishly. He talked so politely and danced so beautifully. She wanted to sit quietly, to relax. He ran... rapidly,. She spoke... softly, loudly, aggressively .. James coughed loudly to attract her attention. He plays the flute beautifully. (after the object) He ate the chocolate cake greedily.
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3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Used as adverbs
You can dial Afghanistan direct

Used as adjectives with noun

*.

This is a direct call. It is fast train. This is a hard board. It is a well ball. This is the wrong way. She has enough money.

The train went fast.

They worked hard.

He writes English well. He led us wrong. She writes enough every day.

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Adjectives
Deep Direct Free
far distant straight without charge

Adverbs deeply directly freely

to a great depth psychologically immediately straightforward, frank

Examples
You were in deep thoughts. We were deeply disappointed. I want a direct answer! Send him to me directly, please! Free words in a free press! They walked around freely.

Hard
High

firm, solid, tough

far or farther from a reference point not on time the greatest number or degree

hardly
highly

barely, just
extremely, very

I worked hard all day. I hardly worked all day.

It was high time to leave. TNT is highly explosive. The bus leaves late at night. Have you seen Joe lately? What I hate most is milk! They played mostly Hip Hop.

Late Most

lately mostly

recently generally, usually

Near

to, at, or within a short distance (time, space)

nearly

almost

Dad parked near the church. He nearly forgot to come.

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Many adverbs are not built with the suffix - ly. Either they have the same form as the adjective or they have a special form. Adjective Adverb Examples
good
fast

well
fast

This is a very good text. You've done it very well.

My dad always has fast cars. He likes to drive fast.

hard
high early late

hard
high early late

This was a hard day for me. I had to work hard all day.
George loves high mountains. He has a house high on the mountain. My mum is an "early riser". She gets up very early in the morning. Nick usually takes the late bus home. But he is never late for school.

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4.

Adverb of Reason: it shows why an action happened as;

Hence, So, because, therefore, consequently,

1. 2. 3. 4.

They study hard because they want to get first position. You are sick so you can not go outside the dormitory. He is sick therefore he cant attend the class. He misread the map and consequently became very lost.

5.

Adverbs of Degree or Quantity: These adverbs answer the question how much or in what degree. Examples are: much, very, fully, partly, little, enough, so, rather etc.
He is quite strong. She is very beautiful. I am fully prepared. My work is almost finished. This is good enough. You are absolutely right. He is entirely wrong. He was rather busy.
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

6. Adverb of Frequency: it shows the repetition of an action as;

1. 2.

3.
4. 5.

6.
7. 8. 9. 10.

He came once. Show it again. We see them rarely. John eats meat very seldom. I play tennis occasionally. We never yield before the transgressor. Sometimes they come and stay with us. We usually go shopping on Saturday. She is always absent in the class. Often I visit my friends at nights.

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Adverb of frequency

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Exercise for practice:

I think the train station is (near/nearly) the main Market. Dad is (deep/deeply) worried because I had a "5" in my Biology test. What tourist like (most/mostly) about Malaysia are the beautiful islands. Bruno is a vegetarian. He eats (most/mostly) salads and vegetable dishes. I have been very busy (late/lately).

Pete is a programmer on some days he works until (late/ lately) at night.

Dad can get us (free/freely) tickets to the Rolling Stones concert. I can (hard/hardly) believe she is so successful. It is (hard/hardly) work to become a doctor.

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Fill in the words in brackets as adjective or adverb like in the example.

Example: Peter works ______ (slow). Answer: Peter works slowly.

1.

2. 3.

4.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

He _____________ reads a book. (quick) Madina is a ______________________ girl. (pretty) The class is _________________ loud today. (terrible) Max is a __________________ singer. (good) You can _______________ open this tin. (easy) It's a _________________ day today. (terrible) She sings the song _________________ . (good) He is a __________________________ driver. (careful) He drives the car ________________ . (careful) The dog barks ____________________________ . (loud)

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Exercise
Insert the given adverbs in their normal position:1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

He invited me to visit him (often). I am determined to yield this point (never). I know the answer (already). We have seen her (just), in the square. Will he be there( still)?
Indicate the following whether they are adverb of manner, reason, time or place.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The thief crept silently across the rooftops. I am not feeling well today. The teacher is here to deliver the instructions. She is going to tidy up (neat) the room tomorrow. she was irregular in the class so she went away and not returned back. When do they study their course books?
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TENSE OR TIME
Tense is basically derived from Latin word Tempus which means, time. So it is a set of verb-formation that indicates when the action happens or takes place; as, Past, Present, Future
1. 2. 3. 4.

I write the letter to please you. We play the game at the evening. She danced last night in the wedding party. They will send another letter tomorrow.

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Tenses can be divided in the followings:

Past Tense:
Simple Past Past Progressive Past Perfect Past Perfect Progressive

Present Tense:
Simple Present Present progressive Present Perfect Present Perfect Progressive

Future Tense:
Simple Future Future Progressive Future Prefect Future Perfect Progressive
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Simple Present Tense

It expresses an action that happens:
1. Habitually or everyday; as,
1. 2. 3. 4.

Ali takes water before he goes to bed. He drinks tea every morning. I get up every day at five o clock. My watch keeps good time.

2. General truths/ Universal Facts; as, 1. God is one. 2. The sun rises in the east. 3. Honey is sweet. 4. Fortune favours the brave. 5. The world is round.

(universal truth) (universal truth) (general truth) (general truth) (universal truth)
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SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE (STRUCTURE)

He/she/name/it Verb with s/es+complement/object John Washes his clothes himself. He studies the subjects everyday. Does John Wash his clothes himself? Does he study the subjects everyday? We/you/they/I Base form of the verb complement/object We play football. I teach English. You send the message to your cousin.

Do we play football? Do I teach English?

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Put in the verbs in the simple Present into the gaps.

Example: ___ he ______ the newspaper? (to read) Answer: He reads the newspaper. He does not read the newspaper. Does he read the newspaper?
1) 2) 3)

(positive) (negative) (interrogative)

4)
5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11)

____Ahmad_____________ in the garden? (to work) ____ she _____________ a cup of tea? (to drink) ____ the children _____________ their homework? (to complete) ____ you _____________ the kitchen, Tom? (to clean) ____ the cat _____________ in the basket? (to sleep) ____ they _____________ their friends? (to meet) ____ your mother _____________ sandwiches? (to make) ____ the birds _____________ sweet melody? (to sing) ____ I _____________ a pullover? (to wear) ____ he _____________ a pizza? (to eat) ____ we ___________ the boy? (to call)
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Exercise
Find the mistakes in the following and use simple present tense
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Ali write to his mother every week. The wind blow furiously. The boy stand on the burning deck. The doors flow open. She sing sweetly. The old woman sit in the sun. His voices shake with emotion. We drives a roaring trade. He bear a grudge (resent-oppose) against his old uncle. you spend your time in idleness. The kite flow gaily into the air. They throws cold water on my plan. I lies in order to escape punishment.
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Present Progressive Tense

This tense is used to show any action or activity which is in the progress form at the time of speaking.
Najib is writing his assignment now. They are playing football at the present moment. she is washing the dishes. I am teaching English now.

Structure
He/she/name/it Is+verbing+complement/object She is writing a letter to her cousin. Is she washing the dishes? are+verbing+complement/object We are listening the music now. Are they playing football? am+verbing+complement/object I am teaching English at this moment. Am I teaching English at this moment?

You/they/we/

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Put in the verbs in the Present Progressive into the gaps.

Example: ___ he ______ the newspaper? (to read) Answer: Is he reading the newspaper? 1) ____Richard_____________ in the garden? (work) 2) ____ she _____________ a cup of tea? (take) 3) ____ the children _____________ their homework? ( do) 4) ____ you _____________ the kitchen, Tom? ( clean) 5) ____ the cat _____________ in the basket? (sleep) 6) ____ Cliff and Oliver _____________ friends? (meet) 7) ____ your mother _____________ sandwiches? ( make) 8) ____ the birds _____________ a sweet song? (sing) 9) ____ Carmen _____________ a pullover? (wear) 10) ____ they _____________ a pizza? ( eat) 11) The cat /sleep ______________ on the chair. 12) Jane and Emily /do ______________ their homework. 13) Bill /wait ______________ at the bus stop. 14) We /listen ______________ to the radio. 15) The children /play ______________ a game . 16) Laura /walk ______________ with the dog.
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Exercise
In the following sentences change the verbs into the Present Progressive:
1. 2.

3.
4. 5. 6.

7.
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Mahmood plays with his friends. The wind blows furiously. The students jump on the burning deck. The doors fly open. They sings sweetly. The old woman sits in the sun. His voice shake with emotion. They drives a roaring trade. He bear a grudge ( resent/oppose) against his old uncle. she spend her time in idleness. The kites flies gaily into the air. He throw cold water on my plan. I goes to school now with my ex-friends.
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Exercise
Choose the correct alternative from the given in brackets:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10.

The headmaster ___ to speak to you. ( wants, is wanting) Look: the sun ___ over the hills right now. ( rises, is rising) She ___ something burning everyday. (smells, am smelling) Every day my aunt __ a plate. ( breaks, is breaking) It __________ now outside. ( rains, is raining) He __ us every week to spend free time. ( is visiting, visits) Who ____ twice a week in the paper every time? (do appear, is appearing) I meet Ahmad if he _____ here at this time. ( arrives, is arriving) When you ____ , I will inform you then. (are coming, come) Here is your shoes; I daily ___ them. (polish, am polishing,

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