Chapter 27 Structure and Function of the Respiratory System

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Function of the Respiratory System

Gas exchange Oxygen from air to lungs Carbon dioxide from blood to atmosphere Host defense Barrier to outside environment Metabolic organ Synthesizes and metabolizes different components

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Structural Organization of the Respiratory System

Consists of the air passages and the lungs Divided into two parts by function: Conducting airways, through which air moves as it passes between the atmosphere and the lungs Respiratory tissues of the lungs, where gas exchange takes place

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Structures of the Airways

Conducting Nasal passages Mouth and pharynx Respiratory tissues Alveolar bundle Respiratory membrane

Larynx
Trachea Bronchi

Bronchioles
Mucociliary blanket

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Ventilation
Depends on the conducting airways Nasopharynx and oropharynx Larynx Tracheobronchial tree Function Moves air out of the lungs but does not participate in gas exchange

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Structure and Function of the Larynx

Structure Connects the oropharynx with the trachea Located in a strategic position between the upper airways and the lungs Functions Helps produce speech

Protects the lungs from substances other than air

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Structures of the Lungs

Soft, spongy, cone-shaped organs located side by side in the chest cavity Separated from each other by the mediastinum and its contents Divided into lobes (3 in the right lung, 2 in the left) Apex: upper part of the lung; lies against the top of the thoracic cavity Base: lower part of the lung; lies against the diaphragm

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Composition of the Alveolar Structures

Type I alveolar cells Flat, squamous epithelial cells across which gas exchange takes place

Type II alveolar cells

Produce surfactant, a lipoprotein substance that decreases the surface tension in the alveoli and allows for greater ease of lung inflation

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Lung Circulation
Pulmonary circulation Arises from the pulmonary artery Provides for the gas exchange function of the lungs

Bronchial circulation
Arises from the thoracic aorta Supplies the lungs and other lung structures with oxygen

Distributes blood to the conducting airways

Warms and humidifies incoming air

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Ventilation and Gas Exchange

Ventilation The movement of gases into and out of the lungs Inspiration Air is drawn into the lungs as the respiratory muscles expand the chest cavity. Expiration

Air moves out of the lungs as the chest muscles recoil and the chest cavity becomes smaller.

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Question
Which of the following is directly responsible for gas exchange? a. Trachea

b. Bronchi
c. Bronchial circulation d. Pulmonary circulation

e. Respiratory membrane

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Answer
a. Trachea b. Bronchi c. Bronchial circulation d. Pulmonary circulation e. Respiratory membrane: The respiratory membrane is the anatomical site of gas exchange in the lungs. It is located in the alveoli.

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Properties of Gases
Respiratory pressures Atmospheric pressure Partial pressures Humidity Temperature effects

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Respiratory Pressures
Intrapulmonary pressure or alveolar pressure Pressure inside the airways and alveoli of the lungs Intrapleural pressure Pressure in the pleural cavity Intrathoracic pressure Pressure in the thoracic cavity

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Lung Compliance
Lung compliance C = V/P The change in lung volume (V) that can be accomplished with a given change in respiratory pressure (P)

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Airway Resistance
The volume of air that moves into and out of the airexchange portion of the lungs Directly related to the pressure difference between the lungs and the atmosphere Inversely related to the resistance the air encounters as it moves through the airways

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Lung Volumes
Tidal volume (TV) Amount of air that moves into and out of the lungs during a normal breath

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

The maximum amount of air that can be inspired in excess of the normal TV

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Lung Volumes (cont.)

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) Maximum amount of air that can be exhaled in excess of the normal TV

Residual volume
The air that remains in the lungs after forced respiration

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Lung Capacities
Vital capacity: equals the IRV plus the TV plus the ERV The amount of air that can be exhaled from the point of maximal inspiration

Inspiratory capacity: equals the TV plus the IRV

The amount of air a person can breathe beginning at the normal expiratory level and distending the lungs to the maximal amount

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Lung Capacities (cont.)

Functional residual capacity: the sum of the RV and ERV The volume of air that remains in the lungs at the end of normal expiration Total lung capacity: the sum of all the volumes in the lungs

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Pulmonary Function Studies

Maximum voluntary ventilation The volume of air a person can move into and out of the lungs during maximum effort lasting for 1215 seconds Forced expiratory vital capacity (FVC) Involves full inspiration to total lung capacity followed by forceful maximal expiration

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Pulmonary Function Studies (cont.)

Forced expiratory volume (FEV) The expiratory volume achieved in a given time period

Forced inspiratory vital flow (FIF)

The respiratory response during rapid maximal inspiration

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Question
Which of the following make up the vital capacity? a. IRV +ERV b. Vt + ERV c. Vt + IRV + ERV d. Vt + IRV Residual volume

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Answer
a. IRV +ERV b. Vt + ERV c. Vt + IRV + ERV: These are the basic components of the vital capacity. d. Vt + IRV Residual volume

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Processes of Pulmonary Gas Exchange

Ventilation The flow of gases into and out of the alveoli of the lungs

Perfusion
The flow of blood in the adjacent pulmonary capillaries Diffusion

Transfer of gases between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries

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Types of Air Movement in the Lung

Bulk flow Occurs in the conducting airways Controlled by pressure differences between the mouth and that of airways in the lung Diffusion The movement of gases in the alveoli and across the alveolar capillary membrane

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Types of Dead Space

Anatomic dead space That contained in the conducting airways Alveolar dead space That contained in the respiratory portion of the lung Physiologic dead space The anatomic dead space plus the alveolar dead space

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Types of Shunts
Anatomic shunt Blood moves from the venous to the arterial side of the circulation without moving through the lungs

Physiologic shunt
Mismatching of ventilation and perfusion with the lung Results in insufficient ventilation to provide the oxygen needed to oxygenate the blood flowing through the alveolar capillaries

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Matching Ventilation and Perfusion

Required for exchange of gases between the air in the alveoli and the blood in pulmonary capillaries Two factors interfere with the process:

Dead air space and shunt

The blood oxygen level reflects the mixing of blood from alveolar dead space and physiologic shunting areas as it moves into the pulmonary veins.

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Factors Affecting AlveolarCapillary Gas Exchange

Surface area available for diffusion Thickness of the alveolar-capacity membrane Partial pressure of alveolar gases Solubility and molecular weight of the gas

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Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport

PO2 of arterial blood normally is above 80 mm Hg. 1. In chemical combination with hemoglobin 9899% Oxyhemoglobin Binding affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen 2. In the dissolved state

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Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport (cont.)

The PCO2 is in the range of 3545 mm Hg. Dissolved in carbon dioxide (10%) Attached to hemoglobin (30%) Bicarbonate (60%) Acid-base balance is influenced by the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide and the bicarbonate level in the blood

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Control of Breathing
Respiratory center Pacemaker center Pneumotaxic center Apneustic center Phrenic nerve

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Control of Breathing (cont.)

Automatic regulation of ventilation Controlled by input from two types of sensors or receptors

Chemoreceptors: monitor blood levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide and adjust ventilation to meet the changing metabolic needs of the body
Lung receptors: monitor breathing patterns and lung function

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Control of Breathing (cont.)

Voluntary regulation of ventilation Integrates breathing with voluntary acts such as speaking, blowing, and singing

These acts, initiated by the motor and premotor cortex, cause a temporary suspension of automatic breathing.

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Cough Reflex
Neurally mediated reflex that protects the lungs Accumulation of secretions Entry of irritating and destructive substances

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Cheyne-Stokes
Abnormal pattern of breathing Characterized by oscillation of ventilation between apnea and hyperpnea

Compensate for changing serum partial pressures

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Mechanisms Involved in Dyspnea

Stimulation of lung receptors Increased sensitivity to changes in ventilation perceived through central nervous system mechanisms Reduced ventilatory capacity or breathing reserve Stimulation of neural receptors in the muscle fibers of the intercostals and diaphragm and of receptors in the skeletal joints Associated conditions Primary lung diseases Heart disease

Neuromuscular disorders

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Question
Which of the following accurately describes your breathing pattern after running to class? a. Cheyne-Stokes

b. Normal
c. Dyspnea d. Eupnea

e. Hypoxemia

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Answer
a. Cheyne-Stokes b. Normal c. Dyspnea: Dyspnea is simply labored breathing; it is not necessarily pathological in nature. d. Eupnea e. Hypoxemia

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