EARTHWORKS

EARTHWORKS
Areas and Volumes of earthworks Distribution Analysis (HAQL and MASS DIAGRAM) ROUTE SURVEYING DEFINITION Route Surveying is a survey which supplies data necessary to determine the alignment, grades, and earthworks quantities necessary for the location and construction of engineering projects. This includes highways, drainage, canal, pipelines, railways, transmission lines, and other civil engineering projects that do not close upon the point of beginning

ROUTE LOCATION STAGES OF HIGHWAY SURVEYS Development of the interstate highway system and more general acceptance of the limited access principle for major highways have resulted in a more and more highway projects being to serve local traffic, surveys for highway projects where new location is being considered start with a general study of the entire area between termini, proceed to more specific studies of possible alternative routes, and finally conclude with a detailed survey of the selected route and staking of the final centerline on the ground.

 These procedures are generally carried in three stages: RECONAISSANCE PRELIMINARY SURVEY LOCATION SURVEY

RECONAISSANCE Includes a general study of the entire area the development of one or more alternative routes or corridors, and the study of each of these corridors in sufficient detail to enable the proper officials to decide which will provide the optimum location.

PRELIMINARY SURVEY Is a survey of selected corridors in sufficient detail to permit staking of the final centerline on the ground in some cases, the preliminary survey may be completed and staked in the field without variation in other instances, Minor adjustments may be required during the location survey.

LOCATION SURVEY Consists in staking the final centerline and obtaining all additional information necessary to enable the design engineer to prepare completed plans, specifications, and estimates of earthwork quantities and to prepare deeds and descriptions covering the rights of way to be acquired.

EARTHWORKS
EARTHWORKS the construction of large open cuttings or excavations involving both cutting and filling of material other than rock. EXCAVATION is the process of loosening and removing earth or rock from its original position in a cut and transporting it to a fill or to a waste deposit. EMBANKMENT the term embankment describes the fill added above the low points along the roadway to raise the level to the bottom of the pavement structure material for embankment commonly comes from roadway cuts or designated borrow areas.

SETTING STAKES FOR EARTHWORK The first step in connection with earthwork is staking out or setting slope stakes as it is commonly called. Two important parts of the work of setting slope stakes: Setting the Stakes Keeping the Notes

The data for setting the stakes are: The ground with center stakes set at every station. A record of benchmarks and of elevations and rates of grades established. The base and side slopes of the cross section for each class of material. In practice, notes of alignment, a full profile, and various convenient data are commonly given in addition to the above mentioned data.

 Side Slopes most commonly employed for cuts and fills. MATERIAL EXCAVATION SIDE SLOPE ORDINARY EARTH 1.50 : 1.00 COURSE GRAVEL 1.00 : 1.00 LOOSE ROCK 0.50 : 1.00 SOLID ROCK 0.25 : 1.00 SOFT CLAY OR SAND 2 or 3 : 1.00

 SETTING THE STAKES Setting the stakes work consists of: Making upon the back of the center stakes the cut or fill in feet or meters and tenths, as C 2 3 or F 4 7 Setting side stakes or slope stakes at each side of centerline at the point where the side slope intersects the surface of the ground and marking upon the inner side of the stake, cut or fill at that point.

FIGURE

FIGURE

 Process of determining the height of cut or fill at the center stake or at any other points between the center space and slope stake.

FIGURE

 Let HI = elevation of the line of sight or telescope refereed fro known or assumed datum. Grade ROD = difference in elevations between the line of sight (HI) and the grade elevation Ground ROD = HI Grad Elevation CUT = Grade ROD Ground ROD

FIGURE

 When the instrument is set up above the grade or subgrade: Grade ROD A = (HI)A Grade Elevation FILL = Ground ROD A Grade ROD A
When the instrument is set up below the grade or subgrade:

Grade ROD B = Grade Elevation (HI)B FILL = Grade ROD B + Ground ROD B

SETTING SIDE OF SLOPE (FIELD PROCEDURES) The cross sectioning is done after the grade lines have been determined in the office. The amounts of cut and fill at the center are computed, the distances and their heights above the base, or below it of the slope stakes are determined as follows:

An engineers level is set up and rod readings are taken at the center and at trial point. Assume that the third trial point is on the slope, compute the distance fro the center using the following formulas: DL = B / 2 + SHL S = Horizontal / Vertical DR = B / 2 + SHR Where: S = Side Slope HL = Side Height Left B = Base pr Width HR = Side Height Right DL = Distance out left DR = Distance out right

 Measure the distance from the center to the trial point, if this distance is less than the calculated distance, the rod is to be moved out for another trial point; if greater, the rod is to be moved in, if equal, the point is correctly located. A stake is placed here indicating the right of the slope point above or below the base or sub grade.

 ILLUSTRATION:
If the measured distance is greater than the calculated distance, then the trial point is too far out the center line of the roadway and the direction to the rodman is to move in.

Figure

If the measured distance is less than the calculated distance, the trial point is too near to the centerline of the roadway and the direction to the rodman is to move out. Figure

 C. If the measured distance is exactly equal to the calculated distance, the point is correctly located and the slope stake is at on the ground indicating the height of the slope point above or below the ground. Figure

ROAD CROSS SECTION

A. LEVEL SECTION If the ground level in a direction transverse to the centerline, the only rod reading necessary is that the centerstake, and the distance to the slope stake can be calculated once the center cut or fill has been determined, such a cross-section is called level section.

1.LEVEL SECTION IN CUT

Figure

Centerheight = 1.83m Base for Cut = 8.00m SS for Cut = 1:1 DR = DL = B / 2 + SC = 4 + 1 (1.83) = 5.83

 Figure

2.LEVEL SECTION IN FILL

Centerheight = 1.50m Base for Fill = 7.00m SS for Fill = -1.50 : 1.00 DR = DL = B / 2 + SC = 3.50 + 1.50 (1.50) = 5.75

B.THREE LEVEL SECTION

When Rod readings are taken at each slope stake in addition to readings taken at the center as will normally be done whEre the ground is sloping the cross-section is called Three Level Section.

 FIGURE:

Base for Cut = 8.00m SS for Cut = 1.00:1.00 DL = B / 2 + SHL = 4.00 + 1(0.63) = 4.63m DR = B / 2 + SHR = 4.00 + 1(4.96) = 8.96m

 FIGURE:

Base for Fill = 7.00m SS for Fill = 1.50:1.00 DL = B / 2 + SHL = 3.50 + 1.50(3.12) = 8.18m DR = B / 2 + SHR = 3.50 + 1.50(2.62) = 7.43

C.FIVE LEVEL SECTION

When rod reading is taken at the centerside the slope stake and at points on each side of the center of the distance of half the width of the road bed, the cross section is called a FIVE LEVEL SECTION.

 FIGURE:

Base for Fill = 7.00m SS for Fill = 1.50:1.00 DL = B / 2 + SHL = 3.50 + 1.50(2.42) = 7.13m DR = B / 2 + SHR = 3.50 + 1.50(3.28) = 9.23m

SAMPLE PROBLEM (Setting Slope Stakes)

In setting slope stakes, the height of cut at the center has been found to be 1.43m, the ground readings at center M and trial point A on the slope are 2.33m and 1.46m, respectively, and the measured distance from the center line of the roadway to the trial point is 8.24m. If the base of the roadway is 9m and the side slope is 1.50:1.00, should the trial point be moved in or out?

 FIGURE:

 Grade Rod Grade Rod @ M = 2.33+ 1.43 = 3.76 Measured Distance (DM) = 8.24 Calculated Distance (DC) = B / 2 + SHR Where: B / 2 = 4.5m HR = 3.76 1.46 = 2.30m 1.50 / 1.00 = SHR / 2.30 SHR = 2.30 (1.50) / 1.00 SHR = 3.45 DC = 4.5 + 3.45 = 7.95 Since DC < DM --- Move In

SOLUTION

 FIGURE:

Base for Cut = 8.00m SS for Cut = 1:1 DL = B / 2 + SHL = 4.00 + 1(2.75) = 6.75m DR = B / 2 + SHR = 4.00 + 1(3.60) = 7.60m

 FIGURE:

Base for Fill = 7.00m SS for Fill = 1.50:1.00 DL = B / 2 + SHL = 3.5 + 1.50(2.84) = 7.76m DR = B / 2 + SHR = 3.50 + 1.50(2.92) = 7.88m

D. IRREGULAR SECTION IN CUT

A cross section for which observation is taken to points between center and slope stakes at irregular intervals is called irregular section.

 FIGURE:

Base for Cut = 8.00m SS for Cut = 1:1 DL = B / 2 + SHL = 4.00 + 1(2.60) = 6.60m DR = B / 2 + SHR = 4.00 + 1(3.47) = 7.47m

E. SIDE HILL SECTION

Where the cross-section passes through from cut to fill, it is called a SIDE HILL SECTION and an additional observation is made to determine the distance from center to the grade point. That is the point where subgrade will intersect the natural ground surface. A peg is usually driven to grade at this point and its position is indicated by a guard stake marked Grade. In this case also cross-section is taken additional plus station.

 Base for Cut = 8.00m Base for Fill = 7.00m DL = B / 2 + SHL = 3.50 + 1.50(3.60) = 8.99m DR = B / 2 + SHR = 4.00 + 1(3.67) = 7.47m

 PROBLEMS: In two ways, find the areas of each of the following cross-section note, given the corresponding bases and side slope if not given they are to be computed

A. BASE WIDTH 8.00m SIDE SLOPE 1.50:1.00 ? / 12.84 + 2.84

B. BASE WIDTH ? SIDE SLOPE ? 5.79 / -1.86 1.27 C. BASE WIDTH SIDE SLOPE 7.85 / 3.08 4.00 / 2.83

? / 2.84

6.03 / -2.02

? ? 4.00 / 3.65 + 3.27 8.05 / 3.24

D. BASE WIDTH 8.00m SIDE SLOPE 1.50:1.00 ? / -3.56 6.28 / -2.28 -2.32 1.00 / -1.11 7.50 / -3.82 ? / -2.74 E. BASE WIDTH SIDE SLOPE 6.97 / -3.47 -0.61 3.66 / -5.94 8.00m (Cut) 5.00 (Fill) 1.00:1.00 1.04 / 0.00 3.44 / 2.44

a. LEVEL SECTION IN CUT

figure

b. THREE LEVEL SECTION IN FILL

figure

c. FIVE LEVEL SECTION IN CUT

Figure:

d. IRREGULAR SECTION IN FILL

Figure:

e. SIDE HILL SECTION

Figure:

METHODS OF DETERMINING VOLUMES OF EARTHWORKS

figure

A. By Average End Areas

V = L / 2 (A1 + A2) Where: V = Volume of Section of Earthworks between Sta 1 and 2, m A1 , A2 = Cross sectional area of end stations, m L = Perpendicular Distance between the end station, m

 NOTES: The above volume formula is exact only when A1 = A2 but is approximate A1 <> A2. Considering the facts that cross-sections are usually a considerable distance apart and that minor inequalities in the surface of the earth between sections are not considered, the method of end areas is sufficiently precise for ordinary earthwork. By where heavy cuts or fills occur on sharp curves. The computed volume of earthwork ay be corrected for curvature out of ordinarily the corrected is not large enough to be considered.

B. By Prismoidal Formula
V = L / 6 (A1 + 4AM + A2) Where: V = Volume of section of earthwork between Sta 1 and 2 of volume of prismoid, m A1 , A2 = cross sectional area of end sections, m AM = Area of mid section parallel to the end sections and which will be computed as the averages of respective end dimensions, m

 NOTES: A Prismoidal is a solid having for its two ends any dissimilar parallel plane figures of the same no. of sides, and all the sides of the solid plane figures. Also, any prismoid may be resolve into prisms, pyramids and wedges, having a common altitudes the perpendicular distance between the two parallel end plane cross section.

 As far as volume of earthworks are concerned, the use of Prismoidal formula is justified only if cross-section are taken at short intervals, is a small surface deviations are observed, and if the areas of successive cross-section cliff or widely usually it yields smaller values than those computed from average end areas.

C. PRISMOIDAL CORRECTION FORMULA

Figure:

 CD = L / 12 (b1 b2)(h1 h2) Where: CD = Prismoidal Correction, It is subtracted algebraically from the volume as determined by the average and the areas method to give the more nearly correct volume as determined by the Prismoidal formula, m L = Perpendicular distance between 2 parallel and sections, m b1 = Distance between slope stakes at end section ABC where the altitude is h1, m b2 = Distance between slope stake at end section DEF where the altitude is h2, m h1 = Altitude of end section ABC at Sta 1, m h2 = Altitude of end section DEF at Sta 2, m

PRISMOIDAL CORRECTION FOR IRREGULAR SECTION

In prismoid, there should be equal number of slope in both bases so that on equal number triangles can be found. The Prismoidal correction can then be found. The Prismoidal correction can then be found using either the fundamental formula of correction, CD = L / 12 (b1 b2)(h1 h2) or any of the formulas derive from it, where, however one base or any a five level section or three level section and other.

 A five level section (or irregular section) or both bases are irregular sections or, if one base is a five level section and the other irregular section, the formulas cannot be directly applied without making certain assumptions because there are more triangles formed in one section than in the other. The determination of the correction is at best only approximate. For the purpose of determining the Prismoidal correction, the following may be used:

 Neglect the intermediate heights thereby reducing the sections into three level or level sections this is the most convenient method. Plot the irregular or five level sections on cross sections paper. Draw on this section two equalizing lines starting from the same point or the center height such that the error added equal the areas subtracted approximately by estimating the center height as well as the distances in the right or in the left can then be scaled. This is more accurate than method A but involves more work. Reduce the five level or irregular section by calculation to equivalent level or three level sections as follows:

1. To LEVEL SECTIONS The area of a level section BC + SC (B is the base, C is the center point, and S is the side slope.) Equate this area forced per the irregular or five-level section Base SS being known, a quadratic formula in one unknown is formed from which C is determined. Solve for the corresponding value of C.

2.To THREE LEVEL SECTIONS

Figure:

Total Area of three level section in cut A = A1 + A2 Where: A1 = B / 4 (HL + HR) A2 = C / 4 (B + S) (HL + HR) Then K = BC / 2 + (HL + HR) (B / 4 CS / 2) NOTE: The unknowns are C, HR and HL. Two these should be assumed and the third computed. It is simpler to covert to level section.

 PROBLEM:
Given the following cross-section notes of a roadway with a base of 6m and SS of 1.25:1.00, between the volume of the prismoid between the two-end sections by the following methods:

END AREA METHOD PRISMOIDAL FORMULA END AREA METHOD and PRISMOIDAL CORRECTION FORMULA

 Given: STATION 10 + 000 10 + 020

CROSS SECTION NOTES +6.55 + 2.84+2.84 +6.55 + 2.84 +7.55 + 3.64+1.85 +3.65 + 0.52

 SOLUTION: Compute for the area at each station crosssection and at mid-section Figure:

Check for Cut distances DR1 = DL1 = B / 2 + SHR = 1 / 2 (6m) + 1.25(2.84) = 6.55m Area by method of triangle and rhombus A1 = BC + SC = 27.12m

 Figure:

Check for the distances DR2 = B / 2 + SHR2 = 1 / 2 (6) + 1.25(0.52) = 3.65m DL2 = B / 2 + SHL2 = 1 / 2 (6) + 1.25(3.64) = 7.55m Area by method of triangle A2 = Aa + AL + Ac + Ad = 1 / 2 (3)(3.64) + 1 / 2 (1.85)(7.55) + 1 / 2 (1.85)(3.65) + 1 / 2 (0.52)(3)

A2 = 16.60m

 Compute for the dimensions of the mid sections Figure

DRm

= 1 / 2 (DR1 + DR2) = 1 / 2 (2.84 + 0.52) DRm = 5.10m DLm = 1 / 2 (DL1 + DL2) = 1 / 2 (2.84 + 3.64) DLm = 7.05m HCm = 1 / 2 (HC1 + HC2) = 1 / 2 (2.84 + 1.85) HCm = 2.345m HRm = 1 /2 (HR1 + HR2) HLm = 1 / 2 (HL1 + HL2) = 1 / 2 (6.55 + 3.65) = 1 / 2 (6.55 + 7.55) HRm = 1.68m HLm = 3.24m

Check for Cut distances DRm = B / 2 SHRm = 1 / 2 (6) + 1.25(1.68) DRm = 5.10m DLm = B / 2 SHLm = 1 / 2 (6) + 1.25(3.22) DLm = 7.05m Area by method of triangle Am = Ae + Af + Ag + Ah = 1 / 2 (3)(3.24) + 1 / 2 (7.05)(2.345) + 1 / 2 (5.10)(2.345) + 1 / 2 (3)(1.68) Am = 21.68m

COMPUTE FOR THE VOLUME OF EARTHWORK VOLUME OF CUT IN BETWEEN THE TWO STATIONS Figure

1. By End Area Method Ve = L / 2 (A1 + A2) Where: L = (10 + 020) (10 + 000) = 20m A1 = 27.12m A2 = 16.60m Then, Ve = 20 / 2 (27.12 + 16.60) = 437.20m

2. By Prismoidal Formula Vp = L / 6 (A1 + 4Am + A2) Where: L = 20m A1 = 27.12m A2 = 16.60m Am = 21.67m Then, Vp = 20 / 6 (27.12 + 4*21.67 + 16.60) = 434.13m

Prismoidal Formula for Correction Cp = L / 12 (A1 + A2)(b1 b2) Note: Resolve the given prismoid into a series of triangular prismoid into a series of triangular prismoid. Cp = Cpa + Cpb + Cpc + Ppd

Where:

Cpa = 20 / 12 (2.84 3.64)(3-3) = 0 Cpb = 20 / 12 (2.84 1.85)(6.55 7.55) = 1.65m Cpc = 20 / 12 (2.84 1.85)(6.55 3.65) = 4.785m Ppd = 20 / 12 (2.84 0.52)(3-3) = 0 Then, Cp = -1.65 + 4.785 = 3.135m

4. Corrected Volume Vc = Ve - Cp = 437.20 3.135 Vc = 434.065m Given the following cross section notes, determine the volume of the prismoid b end areas method and apply the Prismoidal formula. The roadway base is 6m with side slope of 1.25:1.00

 STATIONS CROSS-SECTION NOTES 10 + 040 +4.05 +3.00 +2.85 +3.00 +7.05 +0.84 +3.50 +2.12 +3.24 10 + 050 +7.80 +2.00 +3.25 +4.00 +5.65 +3.84 +2.24 +2.50 +2.12

 SOLUTION: Compute for the end areas of the end sections figure:

 Check for distances: DR1 = B / 2 + SHR1 = 3 + 1.25(3.24) DR1 = 7.05

DL1 = B / 2 + SHL1 = 3 + 1.25(0.84) DL1 = 4.05

A1 = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 = 1 / 2 (3.5)(1.05) + 1 / 2 (2.85) + 3.5(3) + 1 / 2 (2.12 + 2.85)(3) + 1 / 2 (2.12)(4.05) A1 = 23.11m

 Figure:

 Check for distances: DR2 = B / 2 + SHR2 = 3 + 1.25(2.12) DR2 = 5.65m

DL2 = B / 2 + SHL2 = 3 + 1.25(3.85) DL2 = 7.80m

A2 = Aa + Ab + Ac + Ad + Ae + Af = 1 / 2 (2.12 + 3.84)(5.80) + 1 / 2 (2.42 + 3.25)(2) + 1 / 2 (2.50 + 3.25)(4) + 1 / 2 (2.12 +2.50)(1.65) 1 / 2 (4.00)(3.84) 1 / 2 (2.65)(2.52) A2 = 27.11m

CONVERT THE END SECTIONS TO AN EQUIVALENT LEVEL SECTIONS

 Figure

 A1 = five level section A1 (equivalent level section) 1.11= 13 HCe1 + S (HCe1) 3.11 = 6 HCe1 + 1.25 (HCe1); Let C1 = HCe1 3.11 = 6 C1 + 1.25 C1

By quadratic formula C1 = 2.52m DRe1 = B / 2 + SHCe1; DRe1 = DLe2 = 3 + 1.25(2.52)

 Figure:

 A2 = irregular section = A2 (equivalent level section) 27.11 = BHCe2 + S(HCe2) 27.11 = 6HCe2 + 1.25(HCe2) Let Ce = HCe2 By quadratic formula C2 = HCe2 Dre2 = B / 2 + SHRe2 = 3 + 1.25 DLe2 = DRe2