Adapted: Mohammad Ariful Hyder Associate Professor, Dept. of CSE Dhaka City College, Dhaka

Adapted
Mohammad Ariful Hyder Associate Professor, Dept. of CSE Dhaka City College, Dhaka.
Unix/Linux History
Unix first version created in Bell Labs-1969 Write Unix system in C language-1973 by Denis
Ritchie AT&T licenses source code for low cost, Trademarkes Unix name, licensees must create new name for their operating systems Many Unix Flavors:, IBM-AIX, Solaris,UnixWare, HP-UX
30 January 2013
Unix System Administration & Programming
Unix Principles
Multiuser, Multitasking
Configuration data stored in text Ability to chain programs together to perform
complex tasks Working with Wide variety of computers High Level of Security
30 January 2013
GNU Project / FSF

GNU (Gnu Not Unix) Project started in 1984 (R. Stallman)
Goal: create free Unix clone By 1990, nearly all required users applications created
(gcc, emacs,..)
Free Software Foundation

Non-profit organization that manages GNU project
30 January 2013
GPL- GNU General Public License

Primary license for Open Source Software Encourages free software All enhancements and changes to GPL software must also be GPL Often called copyleft
all rights reversed
30 January 2013
GPL- GNU General Public License-2

freedom to run the program, for any purpose. freedom to modify the program to suit your

needs. freedom to redistribute copies, either gratis or for a fee. freedom to distribute modified versions of the program, so that the community can benefit from your improvements
30 January 2013
Linux Origins
Linus Torvalds
Finnish college student in 1991 create Linux kernel Code was made available over the internet for free Coders world wide took part in developing the OS
When Linux Kernel combined with GNU applications, complete free Unix-like OS appears (GNU/Linux OS)
30 January 2013
Why Linux
Linux and GNU software are distributed under the terms of the GNU Public License Agreement (GPL)
Linux is continually being developed by individuals throughout the world Skilled programmers can submit additions and
improvements to the Linux OS to Linux Development Team over the internet
30 January 2013
Why Linux
Applications are developed that are both free and commercial
Linux is for Intel based platforms, Power PC, Alpha-
based Linux is for Intel based, multiprocessor compatibility (SMPs)
Fully supported Many distribution (redhat,suse,fedora,ubuntu ...)

30 January 2013 Unix System Administration & Programming 9
Red Hat Enterprise Linux

Custom version of recent Linux kernel Utility and applications Installation and configuration software
Support available
30 January 2013
10
Installing Red Hat Linux

Partitioning Hard disks
Primary Partition + Swap partition
Installation method Network Configuration

IP ,Netmask, Gateway, Hostname +Domain name
+Name Server
Configuring Boot manager (LILO, Grub) Select Package
30 January 2013
11
Hard disk partitioning

hda: Primary Master IDE hdb: Primary Slave IDE hdc: Secondary Master IDE
hdd: Secondary Slave IDE

sda: First hard on SCSI bus. sdb: Second hard on SCSI bus.
30 January 2013
12
Hard disk partitioning-2

(Primary Partitions): 1234 (Logical Partitions): 567 hdxy IDE sdxy SCSI
x (name of hard disk) y (partition number ) Example: hda2,hdb5,sda6
30 January 2013
13

Track
Sector Cylinders
Sectors
Head
30 January 2013
14

Series of
Sectors addressed by (CHS) First sector name MBR: Master Boot Record contain:
Boot program Partition Table:4 Primary partitions
1234
MBR
30 January 2013
Partition 1
Partition 2
Partition 3
Partition 4
15

Primary Partition 1 Primary Partition 2 Primary Partition 3 Primary Partition 4
1234
Status Start FS End
A
0000 1BEh 1FEh
2
2001 3501 6001
FAT32
FAT16 EXT2 NTFS
2000
3500 6000 8000
Boot Program Partition Table
30 January 2013
16

MBR
Primary Partition 1 Primary Partition 2 Primary Partition 3 Primary Partition 4
1234
Boot Sectors P. P. 1 Type: FAT32

M B R
P. P. 2 Type: Extended
P. P. 3 Type: Ext2
P. P. 4 Type: NTFS

P1: FAT32
M B R
P2: Extended D: E: F:
C:
P1: FAT32
M B R
P2: EXT3
P3: Extended D: < 1024 E: F:

Swap
C:
30 January 2013
18
Installation Mode
New or Upgrade from where
CD HTTP, FTP, NFS, Hard disk Kickstart
30 January 2013
19
Local Login
Text mode login at Virtual consoles
Multiple non-GUI logins are possible through the use of
virtual consoles There are by default 6 available virtual consoles Available through Ctrl-Alt-F[1-6]
Graphical login
If X is running, it is available as Ctrl-Alt-F7
30 January 2013
20
Running Commands
Command have the following syntax:
command [options] [arguments]
Each item is separated by a space
Options modify the commands behavior

Arguments are filenames or other information needed by the command
Separated commands with semicolon (;)

Example: date, cal
Changing Your Password

Password should be changed after first login
From the Red Hat menu, choose
Preferances Password
From a terminal, use passwd
30 January 2013
22
Linux Graphical Environments

XFree86: standard X windows System
GNOME Desktop environment based on the GTK+ toolkit
KDE Desktop environment based on the Qt toolkit
30 January 2013
23
Linux File Hierarchy Concepts

Files and directory are organized into a singlerooted inverted tree structure
Names are case-sensitive, delimited by the /
(forward slash) character Each shell and system process has a current directory
30 January 2013
24
Linux File Hierarchy Concepts

/
Directories may
contain plain files or other directories Leads to a tree structure for the filesystem Root directory: /
bin
users tmp
rocket cs2204
doug joke.txt
lab1.txt lab2.txt
30 January 2013
25
Changing Directory
pwd displays the absolute path to the current directory
cd changes directories
- To an absolute path:
$ cd /home/issa/work To relative path:$ cd project/docs To a directory one level up: $ cd .. To your directory home: $ cd To your previous working directory: $ cd -
30 January 2013
26
Listing Directory Contents

List the content of a current directory or a speified directory
Usage:
ls [options] [files or dirs]
30 January 2013
27
The Home Directory

Every user has a home directory, typically under /home Contain user-specific configuration files as well as user data Represented by the ~ character
30 January 2013
28
Absolute pathnames
Absolute pathnames begin with a slash (/)
Complete road map to file location Can be used anytime you wish to specify a file name
30 January 2013
29
Relative pathnames
relative pathnames do not begin with a slash (/) Specifies location relative to your current working
directory Can be used as a shorter way to specify a file name
30 January 2013
30
pathnames
Separate directories by /
Absolute path
start at root and follow the tree e.g. /users/doug/joke.txt
/
bin users tmp rocket
Relative path
start at working directory .. refers to level above; . refers
doug
to working dir. If /users/doug/cs2204 is working dir, this refer to the same file as previous one
joke.txt cs2204 lab1.txt lab2.txt
../joke.txt
Unix System Administration & Programming 31
30 January 2013
File names
File names may be up to 255 characters All characters are valid, except the /
It may be unwise to use certain special characters in
File names are case-sensitive

Example: MAIL, Mail, mail, and mAil Again, possible, but may not be wise
30 January 2013
32
Copying files and Directories

cp copy files and directories Usage:
cp [options] file destination

More than one files may be copied at a time if the
destination is a directory
cp [options] file1 file2 dest
30 January 2013
33
Copying Files and Directories: The Destination

If the destination exists and is a directory, the copy is placed there with the same name If the destination exist and is a file, the copy overwrites the destination file If the destination does not exist, the copy is created with that name
Moving and Renaming Files and Directories

mv move and/or rename files and directories Usage:
mv [options] file destination

More than one files may be moved at a time if the
destination is a directory
mv [options] file1 file2 dest
30 January 2013
35
Moving and Renaming Files and Directories: the Destination

If the destination exists and is a directory, the source
files or directory is moved there with the same name

If the destination exist and is a file, the source file is
moved to that filename, overwriting the file

If the destination does not exist, the source file or
directory is renamed with that name

Removing and Creating Files

rm remove files Usage:
rm [options] filenames

-i -r -f
interactive recursive force
touch create empty files or update filestamps
30 January 2013
37
Creating and Removing Directories

mkdir make a directory rmdir remove an empty directory rm r recursively remove a directory of its content
and all
30 January 2013
38
Determining File Content

Files can contain many types of data Check file type before opening to determine appropriate command or application to use Syntax
file [options] filename (s)
30 January 2013
39
Viewing an Entire Text File

Syntax
cat [options] [file ]
Contents of the files are displayed sequentially
with no break Files display concatenated
30 January 2013
40
Viewing Files One Screenful At a Time

Syntax
less [options] [filename]
Display the contents of a text file one screen at a
time less is the pager used by man Syntax

more [options] [filename]
30 January 2013
41
slocate
output is based on a file index database, updated only once every day.
Syntax
slocate [pattern] locate [pattern]
Example
locate profile
All file or directory pathnames matching the supplied pattern will be displayed
Getting Help: man Pages

man
display pages from reference manual
Manual contains multiple sections Key string or key word searches
Examples
man man man man ls -k copy -f profile 5 passwd
30 January 2013
43
Other Help Utilities

command --help The whatis and apropos info
Text based with sections organized by subject
Command is info section_name
Gnome documentation
30 January 2013
44
bash Introduction
Bourne Again shell Developed for GNU project The de facto standard Linux shell Backward compatible with Bourne shell (sh) the original (standard) UNIX shell. Bourne shell (sh) original UNIX shell written by Steven Bourne at AT&T
30 January 2013
45
bash Heritage
Bourne shell (sh) original UNIX shell written by Steven Bourne at AT&T
C shell (csh) written by bill joy at UC Berkeley
Added many features such as command completion,
history and job control
Korn shell (ksh) written by David Korn at AT&T
30 January 2013
46
bash Heritage-2
Bourne Again Shell (bash)
Implements many of the extra features found in csh, ksh
Command line completion Command line editing Command line history Sophisticated prompt control
30 January 2013
47
bash Heritage
C shell (csh) written by bill joy at UC Berkeley
Added many features such as command completion,
history and job control
Korn shell (ksh) written by David Korn at AT&T
Enhanced C shell (tcsh) a community effort
30 January 2013
48
bash Heritage-2
Bourne Again Shell (bash)
Implements many of the extra features found in csh, ksh
Command line completion Command line editing Command line history Sophisticated prompt control
30 January 2013
49
File Globbing
Globbing is wildcard expansion:
* matches zero or more characters
? matches any single character [a-z] matches a range of characters [â-z] matches all except the range
Example
$ls /usr/bin/b* $ls /usr/bin/?b* $ls a[0-9] $ls [!Aa]*

The Tab key

Type <TAB> key to complete command line:
For the command name, it will complete a command name
For an argument, it will complete a file name
Examaple:
slo<TAB> slocate ls myf<TAB>
30 January 2013
51
history
bash stores a history of commands youve entered, which can be used to repeat commands Use history command to see a list of remembered commands: $ history
Use bang character !
!x execute last command begin with x !2 execute command no 2 !! Execute Last command
History-2
Use the up and down arrow keys to scroll through
previous commands Type <CTRL-R> to search for a command in command history

(reverse-i-search)`:
To recall last argument from previous command:
<ESC>. Or <ALT-.>
30 January 2013
53
Tilde
Tilde (~)
Refer to your home directory:
$ cat ~/.bashrc
May refer to another users home directory:
$ ls ~issa/.bashrc
30 January 2013
54
Variable and String

Parameter/Variable: ($)
Substitute the value of variable in a command line
$ cat $HOME/.bash_profile $ echo $PATH
Curly braces: { }
A string is created for every pattern inside the braces
regardless if any file exist $ rm hello.{c,o}
30 January 2013
55
Command and Math

Command output: `` or $()
substitute output from a command in a command line $ echo Hostname: `hostname` $ echo $(date)
Arithmetic: $[ ] Substitute result of arithmetic expression in a command line

$ echo Area: $[ $x * $y ]
30 January 2013
56
Protecting from Expansion: Backslash

Backslash ( \ ) is the escape character and makes the next character literal
$ echo Your cost: \$5.00
Used as last character on line to continue command on next line:

$ echo This long string will be echoed \ back as one long line This long string will be echoed back as one long line
30 January 2013
57
Protecting from Expansion: Quotes

Single quotes () inhibit all expansion Double quotes () inhibit all expansion except
$ (dollar sign) including $() , ` (back tick), command substitution \ (backslash),single character inhibition
! (exclamation point), history substitution
30 January 2013
58
Command Editing Tricks

<Ctrl-a> move to beginning of line
<Ctrl-e> move cursor to end of line <Esc>f move cursor to beginning of next word
<Esc>b move cursor to beginning of previous or current word

<Ctrl-u> delete to beginning of line
<Ctrl-k> delete to end of line
30 January 2013
59
Command Editing Tricks Editing Modes

By default, bash uses emacs-style key bindings for command editing Type set o vi
to change key bindings to vi-style
Make vi the default by adding the command above to $HOME/.inputrc
30 January 2013
60
The bash Shell Variable

A variable is a label that has a value
Variables are resident in memory Two types: local and environment
Local variables are used only by the shell

Environment variables are passed onto other commands set to display all variables env display environment variables
30 January 2013
61
Local Variable
Conventionally all upper-case Setting variable value
$ CREDIT=300 $ echo $CREDIT
Common Local Variables

HISTFILESIZE determine how many command to be saved
in the history file on logout COLUMN sets the width of the terminal LINES sets the height of terminals PS1 sets the prompt
30 January 2013
62
Aliases
Aliases let you create shortcuts to command
$ Alias dir=ls laF Use alias to see all set aliases To see alias value: $ alias dir $ alias dir=ls laF
30 January 2013
63
Environment variables
Shell variables exist only in current shell instance
Environment variables passed to subshells

Shell variables can be exported into environment
$ CREDIT=300; export CREDIT
30 January 2013
64
Common Environment variables

HOME Path to users home directory
LANG Identification of default language program should use

PWD Users current working directory
EDITOR default editor program

LESS options to pass to the command less TERM terminal type
30 January 2013
65
Environment variables
PATH colon separated list of locations where commands can be found which command (not variable) showing path of executable
$which ls Path to command can also be given explicitly $ /bin/ls /etc $ ./myls /etc
30 January 2013
66
Script of command executed at login
Shell Startup Script
Include:
Configure the shell by setting local variables Configure other program through environment variables
Establish aliases
Run program on startup
30 January 2013
67
Shell Startup Script

Login shells are first shells started (i.e. when you log
in) Shells launched from a login shell typically are not login shells Login shells and non-login shells run different startup script
30 January 2013
68
Startup Script: order of execution

Login shells
/etc/profile
/etc/profile.d
~/.bash_profile
~.bashrc /etc/bashrc Non-Login shells ~.bashrc /etc/bashrc . /etc/profile.d

30 January 2013
69
/etc/profile System-wide startup script

Paresed by all users with Bourne-style shells, including bash and sh Usually sets default PATH variable, user limit, and other variables and settings bash only source (execute) /etc/profile if the shell is a login shell
30 January 2013
70
/etc/profile.d
Some application-specific startup script in this directory Script called by a for-loop in /etc/profile Script set up variables and run initialization procedures
30 January 2013
71
For user-specific settings
~/.bash_profile and ~.bashrc
Common to place variable setting, aliases
variables and run initialization procedures Commands that place output to the screen, such as the date command should go in .bash_profile not .bashrc
30 January 2013
72
~/.bash_logout
Execute when exiting a login shell Useful for running programs automatically at logout Example uses:
Make backup of files Delete temporary files Display date and time of logout
30 January 2013
73
Overview of vi and vim
vi: the visual editor, standard Linux and Unix editor vim: the vi improved standard Red Hat editor On Red hat operating systems, the vi command invokes vim Derived from earlier Unix editors
ed->ex->vi->vim
30 January 2013
74
Starting of vi and vim
To start vim : vi filename

If the file exists, the file is opened and the content are
displayed
If the file doesnt exists,
vi create it when the edits are
saved for the first time
30 January 2013
75
Three Modes of vi and vim

Command mode
Cursor movement
Change, delete, yank, put
Insert mode
Type in new text
Return to command mode with <ESC>
Ex mode
Configuring, exiting, saving Search and replace
30 January 2013
76
Three Modes of vi and vim
command mode
i
insert mode
wrong command ESC
:
last line mode
30 January 2013
77
Cursor Movement Insert mode h left, j down , k up , l right

w word ahead, b word back Arrow keys also work a append after the cursor i insert before the cursor A append to end of line I insert at beginning of line o open a line below O open a line above
Command mode
<esc> takes you from insert mode back to command mode cc change line, dd delete line, yy yank (copy) line
cw change word, dw delete word, yw yank word

Use p or P to put (paste) copied or deleted data
30 January 2013
79
Undoing Changes
u undo most recent change
U undo all changes to current line since the cursor landed on the line
<Ctrl-r> redo last undone change
30 January 2013
80
Searching for Text
/text search downwards for text ?text search Upwards for text n continue search in the same direction N continue search in the opposite direction
30 January 2013
81
Saving and Exiting: ex mode

:wq save changes
:q or q! abonden changes :w save without exit
:e! abandon changes without exit

:wq! Forcing save changes :w! Forcing save without exit
30 January 2013
82
A few tricks
5dd delete 5 line (a number can precede any of the tow character change, delete, yank, or put command
x delete a character
rc replace a character with c

R replace character for character until <esc>
30 January 2013
83
Users
Every user of the system is assigned a unique User ID number
Users names and uid are stored in /etc/passwd
User are assigned a home directory and a program that is run when they log in (usually shell)
Users cannot read, write or execute each others files without permission
30 January 2013
84
Groups
Users are assigned to groups with unique group ID number (gid) gids are stored in /etc/group Each user is given their own private group
They can also be added to other groups to gain
additional access
all users in a group can share files that belong to
the group
30 January 2013
85
The root users

The root user: a special administrative account
Sometimes called the superuser root has complete control over the system
An unlimited capacity to damage the system! Normal (unprivileged) users potential to do damage is limited
You should not log in as root without a very good reason
30 January 2013
86
User and Group ID Numbers

User names map to user ID numbers
Group names map to group ID numbers Data stored on the hard disk is stored numerically
Authentication information is stored in plain text files:

/etc/passwd /etc/shadow /etc/group
30 January 2013
87
System Users and Groups

Server programs such as web or print servers typically run as unprivileged users, not as root
Examples: mail, lp, nobody
Running programs in this way limits the amount of damage any single program can do to the system
30 January 2013
88
Changing Your Identity

To change your password, run passwd
Insecure passwords are rejected
To start a new shell as a different user:

su su su
username su - username
30 January 2013
89
Users Information Commands

Find out who you are
whoami
Find out what groups you belong to

groups
Find out who is logged in

users, who, w
Login / reboot history

last
30 January 2013
90
The Linux Security Model

Users and groups are used to control access to files and resources Users log in to the system by supplying their user name and password Every file on the system is owned by a user and associated with a group Every process has an owner and group affiliation , and can only access the resources its owner or group can access
Linux File Security

Every file and directory has permission set that determine who can access it Permission are set for:
The owner of the file (called user) The group members All others
Permissions that are set are called read, write and
execute permissions
30 January 2013
92
Linux Process Security

When a process accesses a file the user and group of the process are compared with the user and group of the file
If the user matches, the user permissions apply
If the group matches, but the user doesnt, the group
permissions apply If neither match, the other permission apply
30 January 2013
93
Examining Permissions
File permissions may be viewed using ls
$ ls l /bin/login
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 19080 Apr 1 18:26 /bin/login
File type and file access permission are symbolized by a 10-character string
30 January 2013
94
Using Categories
File permissions are established for each of three user categories. Each category also has a one-letter symbol:
u - the files owners (user)
g - other users in the files group

o everyone else (others)
30 January 2013
95
File Permission Types

Four symbols are used when displaying permission:
r : permission to read a file or list a directorys content w : permission to write to a file or create and remove
files from a directory x : permission to execute a program file or change into a directory and do long listing of the directory - : no permission (in place of the r, w, or x)
30 January 2013
96
Examining Directories
The first character in the long listing distinguish directories (d) from regular files (-)
$ ls l /bin
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Apr 1 18:26 /bin/
$ ls l /bin/df -rwxr-xr-x 1 root
root
4096 Apr 1 18:26 /bin/df
Others file types indicators exist
30 January 2013
97
Examining User Permissions

Characters 2,3, and 4 in the access mode identify user permissions
$ ls l /bin/login
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 19080 Apr 1 18:26 /bin/login
This file can be read, written, and executed by its owner, and read and executed by everyone else
30 January 2013
98
Examining group Permissions

Characters 5,6, and 7 in the access mode identify group permissions
$ ls l README
-rw-rw-r-1 issa teachers 9080 Oct 1 8:26 README
This file can be read and written by people in group teachers, but it cannot be executed.
30 January 2013
99
Examining Other Permissions

Characters 8,9, and 10 in the access mode identify permissions for others:
$ ls l README
-rw-rw-r-1 issa teachers 9080 Oct 1 8:26 README
This file can be read by people outside group teachers, but it cannot be changed or executed
30 January 2013
100
Changing Permissions Symbolic method

To change access mode :
$ chmod [-R] mode file
Changes the access mode of files and directories
30 January 2013
101
Changing Permissions Numeric method

Uses a three-digit mode numbers
First digit specifies owners permission Second digit specifies group permission Third digit represents others permission
Permissions are calculated by adding :

4 (for read) 2 (for write) 1 (for execute)
Example
$ chmod 640 myfile
File and directory permissions

Read and write for all is the default (666) for files and 777 for directory umask Can be used to withhold permission upon file creation
Non-privileged users umask is 0002 and the roots umask is 0022

File will have permissions of 664
Default Mode
umask New File Mode

30 January 2013
666 -002 664

103
Special Permissions
Special permissions: a fourth permission set (in addition to user/group/other),Applicable in four cases:
SUID (set user ID) for an executable, Processes are
granted access to system resources based on user who owns the file. SGID (set group ID) for an executable, Same with SUID except group is affected. SGID a directory: Files created in that directory will have their group set to the directory's group.
Special Permissions
Sticky bit for a directory, If set on a directory, then a user
may only delete files that he owns or for which he has explicit write permission granted, even when he has write access to the directory. (e.g. /tmp )
30 January 2013
105
SUID Permissions
When you login, your login shell process values are your user ID and group ID
E.g., if you run passwd (owned by root), THE user ID is
your ID, not root; then how can it update /etc/passwd file owned by root ? SUID bit enables this functionality When an executable file with set user ID (SUID) permission is executed, command run with permission of the owner of the command, not executor of the command File permission of /bin/passwd is r-sr-sr-x
Partitions and Filesystems

Disk drives are divided into partitions Partitions are formatted with filesystems alloying users to store data
Default filesystem: ext3, The Third Extended Linux
Filesystems Other common filesystems:

ext2 , msdos, FAT, NTFS Iso9660(typically used for CDs)
30 January 2013
107
Inode
An inode tables contains a list of all files in an ext2 or ext3 filesystem An inode (index nodes) is an entry in the table, containing information about a file (the metadata), including:
File type, permission, link count, UID, GID The files size and various time stamps
Pointers to the files data blocks on disk
One inode is associated with each file. The system uses inodes as the definition of a file.
Directory
The computers reference for a file is the inode number
The human way to reference a file is by file name A directory is a mapping between the human name for the file and the computers inode number
5 4 7 2
30 January 2013 Unix System Administration & Programming
apples home .
oranges
109
cp and inode
The cp command:
allocates a free inode number, placing a new entry in
the inode table Create a directory entry, referencing the file human file name to the inode number Copies data into new file
30 January 2013
110
mv and inode
If the destination of the mv command is on the same file system as the source, the mv command:
Creates a new directory entry, with the news file name Deletes the old directory entry with the old file name
Has no impact on the inode table(except for a time
stamp) or the location of the data on the disk: no data is moved!
30 January 2013
111
rm and inode
The rm command:
Decrement the link count, thus freeing the inode
number to be reused Places data bocks on the free list Removed the directory entry
Data is not actually removed, but will be overwritten when the data blocks are used by
another file
30 January 2013
112
Symbolic (or Soft) links

A symbolic link point to another file Ls l display the link name and the refenced file
$ ls l pf
lrwxrwxrwx 1 issa issa 11 Oct 1 8:26 ps/etc/passwd
File type: l for symbolic link
Syntax
ln s filename [linkname]
30 January 2013
113
Hard links
One physical file on the filesystem Each link references the files inode File is present in the filesystem as long as at least one link remain Cannot span drives or partitions Syntax
ln filename [linkname]
30 January 2013
114
The 7 Fundamental filetypes

d l b c p
regular file directory symbolic link block special file character special file named pipe socket
30 January 2013
115
Checking Free Space

df report disk space usage
Report total kilobytes, kilobytes used, kilobytes
free per file system -h display sizes in easier to read units du report disk space usage Report kilobytes used per directory Includes subtotals for each subdirectory -s option only report single directory entry Also takes the -h option
Find command
List files and pathnames matching a specific file name or criteria Syntax
find <dirs> [conditions] [action]
Recurses down in file tree in dirs Optionally executes command on each line of output
30 January 2013
117
Finding and processing Files

-exec action execute a command Syntax
find <dirs> [conditions] -exec cmd {} \;
Found files are passed to cmd as arguments

{} is a place holder for the filename
The escaped semicolon delimit the generated
commands
30 January 2013
118
Finding and processing Files

Search Option
-name filename size +n -amin +n
Description
Finds files with the given filename Finds files with the size n Finds files that were accessed n minutes ago
-mtime +n
Finds files that were modified n days ago
30 January 2013
119
Finding Examples
Example:
find . -print
find all files in the current directory (and all subdirectories) & display the results find . -name *.c -print find all files in the current directory (and all subdirectories) with the extension .c & display the results
30 January 2013
120
Finding Examples
find / -name myfile -print
This command tells the find command to look inside the / directory and every subdirectory to look for a file or directory with the name myfile and to display each match it finds This command tells the find command to look inside the current directory and every subdirectory to look for a file with name begin with foo that have been accessed in the last 10 minutes and to display each match it finds
find . -name foo* -amin -10 -print
30 January 2013
Finding Examples
Example: (for student)
find . -size +5000k find . -name "*.tmp" -exec rm {} \;
30 January 2013
122
Mounting Removable Media

Removable media must be mounted before the data can be accessed CD often will be mounted automatically Use the mount command to mount:
mount /media/floppy (for mount floppy)
Media must be unmounted before being removed

CDs:
eject Floppies: umount /media/floppy
30 January 2013
123
Formatting a floppy
One of the this command depending on which filesystem i want to use :
mkfs t ext2 /dev/fd0 mk2fs /dev/fd0 mkfs t vfat /dev/fd0 mformat a:
30 January 2013
124
Why Archive Files

Archiving places many files into one target file
Easier to back up, store, and transfer
tar -standard Linux archiving command Syntax

tar cvf archive_name files c create a new archive v produce verbose messages f archive_name is the name of new file
Options do need a leading dash

Inspecting Archives
Syntax
tar tf archive_name.tar
tar
tvf archive_name.tar
First form display a list of all files in the archive
The v cause a long listing of each file in the archive
30 January 2013
126
Extracting an Archive
Syntax
tar xvf archive_name.tar
The archive will be extracted in the current
directory
Change to the target directory first
Files maintain their hierarchy relative to the
current directory
30 January 2013
127
Why Use File Compression?

Results in smaller file size Text files can be compressed up to 75%
Binary files usually dont compress much

tar -archives are often compressed
30 January 2013
128
Compression Utilities
gzip,gunzip
Standard linux compression utility Up to 75% compression for text files
bzip2,bunzip2
newer linux compression utility Generally archives better compression than gzip
30 January 2013
129
Using Compression
Sample compression commands
gzip termcap gzip -v termcap gunzip -c termcap.gz | wc l gunzip termcap
30 January 2013
130
Compressing archives
Often tar archive are compress
tar can compress/uncompress archives Compression switches- use during creation and
extraction
z for gzip compression j for bzip2 compression
30 January 2013
131
TAR with Compression
file1
tar
.tar
gzip
.tar.gz
subdirectory
30 January 2013
132
tar to Unformatted Floppies

Floppies can used like tape drives
Low level format required File system not needed Use tar to write to the floppy /dev/fd0 is the destination Floppy cannot be mounted
Example:
$ tar czvf /dev/fd0 mydir
30 January 2013
133
Standard Input and Output

Linux provides three I/O channel to processes
Standard input (0): keyboard is default
Standard output (1): terminal windows is default

Standard error (2) : terminal windows is default
30 January 2013
134
Redirecting Input and Output

standard input, output, and error can be reconnected to alternate locations
Shell redirection operators allow standard I/O channels
to be redirected to/from a file Pipes allow standard I/O channels to connected to the input or output of programs
30 January 2013
135
Redirecting Output
In order to study redirecting standard output, and error , we will use the find command.
find /etc name passwd
This command will search for all files named passwd in /etc and its subdirectory
By default both the standard output and standard
error are displayed on the screen.
30 January 2013
136
Redirecting Standard Output

Redirecting standard output with >
find /etc name passwd > findresult
standard error is still displayed on the screen.
If the target file of file redirection with > already exists, the existing file will be overwritten
To append data to an existing file, use >> to redirect
instead of >
30 January 2013
137
Redirecting Standard Error

Redirect standard error with 2>
Example : redirect standard error to a file:
find /etc name passwd 2> finderrors
Standard outputs still displayed on the screen.

To append data to an existing file, use 2>> to redirect instead of 2>
30 January 2013
138
Redirecting Both Standard Redirection of standard output and standard error Output and Error
can be performed simultaneously
find /etc name passwd 2> error > result
Each I/O channel can be redirect ed to different files, or the same file:
find /etc name passwd > alloutput 2>&1 Or find /etc name passwd &> alloutput
30 January 2013
139
Redirecting Input
Redirect standard Input with <
Some commands only operate on standard input
tr doesnt accept filenames as arguments- it require its
input to be redirected from somewhere Tr A-Z a-z < .bash_profile This command will translate the uppercase character in bash_profile to lowercase
30 January 2013
140
Using pipes To connect processes

Pipes (the | character) let you redirect output from on command to become input to another command
ls /usr/lib | less
The mail command takes the message contents as standard input

ls l | mail s here the listing issa
Can create pipelines a powerful feature of linux

cut f
-d: passwd | sort -r | less

30 January 2013
tee
Let you tee a pipe: redirect output to a file while still piping it to another program
set | tee set.out | less Output from set command is written to file set.out while
also being piped to less
30 January 2013
142
tee
Let writing to output and simultaneously
date | tee file1 file2
Thu Jun 10 11:10:34 CEST 2007 cat file1 Thu Jun 10 11:10:34 CEST 2007 cat file2 Thu Jun 10 11:10:34 CEST 2007 uptime | tee -a file2 11:10:51 up 21 days, 21:21, 57 users, load average: 0.04, 0.16, 0.26 cat file2 Thu Jun 10 11:10:34 CEST 2007 11:10:51 up 21 days, 21:21, 57 users, load average: 0.04, 0.16, 0.26
String Processing Tools head few line (default : 10 head command display first
lines) of text in a file
head /tmp/output.txt
Use n or --lines parameter to change number of line displayed

head n 20 /tmp/output.txt
30 January 2013
144
String Processing Tools tail command displaytail few line (default : 10 last
lines) of text in a file
tail
/etc/passwd
Use n or --lines parameter to change number of line displayed

tail n 5 /etc/passwd
Use f to follow the end of a text file as it changes

tail f 5 make.out
Used to watch log files

word count also counts lines and characters

wc
story.txt 39 237 1901 story.txt
Use l for only line count

Use w for only word count Use c for only character count
String Processing Tools wc

String Processing Tools sort Sort text to stout original file unchanged
sort
[option]
file(s)
Common option:
-r -n -f -u -t -k Reverse sort to sort descending Numeric sort Ignore case of characters in strings unique (remove duplicate lines in output) x Use x as field separator pos1 sort from field pos1
30 January 2013
$ cat b
fish dog animal Bird
String Processing Tools sort
$ sort -r b
fish dog bird animal
String Processing Tools sort Sort numeric file as text

$ cat c
5412 this line should go last 998 this line should go second 50 this line should go first 999 this line should go third
$ sort c
50 this line should go first 5412 this line should go last 998 this line should go second 999 this line should go third
30 January 2013
149
String Processing Tools sort Sort numeric file as numbers

$ cat c
5412 this line should go last 998 this line should go second 50 this line should go first 999 this line should go third
$ sort -n
50 this line should go first 998 this line should go second 999 this line should go third 5412 this line should go last
String Processing Tools uniq

Remove successive, duplicate lines in a file Can use in conjunction with sort to remove all duplicated (or use sort u) Use c to count number of occurrences of duplicate data
30 January 2013
151
String Processing Tools uniq

Just sorted:
$ cat a | sort
bird bird dog dog fish fish fly
sort | uniq:
$ cat a | sort | uniq
bird dog fish fly
30 January 2013
152
String Processing Tools Display specific column of file data

cut f4 result.dat
Common option:
-f
cut
Specifies field or column -d Specifies field delimiter (default is TAB) cut f3 d: /etc/passwd -c Cuts by characters cut c2-5 /usr/share/dict/words
Example output Processing Tools String second word on each line:

Delimiter: space Fields: 2
cut
$ cat a
the quick brown fox jumped over a quick brown fox
$ cut -f 2 -d ' ' a

quick over
30 January 2013
154
Example output Processing 5, 7-end String characters 1-3, Tools

$ cat a
cut
the quick brown fox jumped over a quick brown fox
$ cut -c 1-3,5,7- a
theqick brown fox jume over a quick brown fox
30 January 2013
155
String Processing tr -character translator

tr A-Z a-z
Tools
tr, paste < .bash_profile
This command will translate the uppercase character in
bash_profile to lowercase
paste - merge line of files

Paste file1 file2
Version for differences Compares two filesComparison

diff area.c /tmp/area.c 33c33 < x = y + 2; ---> x = y +4; 33c33 indicated line where files differ < indicates line in first file > indicates line in second file
with
diff
30 January 2013
157
Interactive spell-checker
aspell
Easy way to check spelling in a file

check letter.txt
Spell checking with aspell
Can create personal dictionaries
30 January 2013
158
Regular Expressions
You can use and even administer Linux systems
without understanding regular expressions but you will be doing things the hard way Regular expressions are endemic to Unix
vi, ed, sed, and emacs
Awk, Tcl, Perl and Python grep, egrep, fgrep
30 January 2013
159
So What Is a Regular Expression?

A regular expression is simply a description of a pattern that describes a set of possible characters in an input string Weve already seen some simple examples of regular expressions (known as regex from here on)
In vi when searching :/c[aou]t searches for cat, cot, or
cut In the shell

ls *.txt cat chapter? cp Week[1234].pdf /home/clyde/krf

30 January 2013
Downside of Regular Expressions

There is considerable variation from utility to
utility
The shell is limited to fairly simple metacharacter
substitution (*,?, []) and doesnt really support regex Regex in vi are also fairly limited Regex in sed are not exactly the same as regex in Perl, or Awk, or grep, or egrep
This puts the onus on the user to examine the man
page or other documentation for these utilities to determine which flavor of regex are supported
So How Do We Build a Regex?

The simplest regex is a normal character
c , for example, will match a c anywhere while an a will
do the same for an a
The next thing is a . (period)

This will match any single occurrence of any character
except a newline For example . will match a z or an e or a ? or even another . w.n will match win, wan, won, wen, wmn, went, and wanton as well as w*n and w9n
Protecting Regex Metacharacters

Since many of the special characters used in regexs also have special meaning to the shell, its a good idea to get in the habit of single quoting your regexs
This will protect any special characters from being
operated on by the shell If you habitually do it, you wont have to worry about when it is necessary
30 January 2013
163
Multiple Occurrences in a Pattern

The * (asterisk or star) is used to define zero or
more occurrences of the single character preceding it

abc*d will match abd, abcd, abccd, abcccd, or even
abcccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccd Note the difference between the * in a regex and the shells usage
In a regex, a * only stands for zero or more occurrences of a single preceding character, In the shell, the * stands for any number of characters that may or may not be different
30 January 2013
164
Specifying Begin or End of Line

The ^ specifies the beginning of a line
^The then will match any The that are the first
characters on a line
The $ matches the end of line

well$ will match well only if they are the last
characters on a line prior to the NEWLINE character Note that well (notice the space at the end) would NOT match well$
^Ken$ would only match a line that started with Ken and then had no other characters on the line
165
Character Classes [ ]
The square brackets [ ] are used to define character
classes
[aA]wk will match awk or Awk
Ranges can also be specified in character classes

[1-9] is the same as [123456789] [abcde] is equivalent to [a-e] You can also combine multiple ranges
[abcde123456789] is equivalent to [a-e1-9]
Note that the - character has a special meaning in a
character class BUT ONLY if it is used within a range, [123] would match the characters -, 1, 2, or 3
Negating a Character Class

The ^, when used as the first character in a character class definition, serves to negate the definition
For example [âeiou] matches any character except a,
e, I, o, or u Used anywhere else within a character class, the ^ simply stands for a ^
[ab^&] would match a a, b, ^, or &
Note also that within a character class, the ^ does not
stand for beginning of line

Escaping Special Characters

Even though we are single quoting our regexs so the shell wont interpret the special characters, sometimes we still want to use a special character as itself To do this, we escape the character with a \ (backslash) Suppose we want to search for the character sequence 8*9*
Unless we do something special, this will match zero or
30 January 2013
more 8s followed by zero or more 9s, not what we want 8\*9\* will fix this - now the asterisks are treated as regular characters
168
Reading a Regex
If you get in the habit of literally reading a regex, it
will be much easier for you to determine what one does

^Ken could be read as matching the word Ken at the
beginning of a line A better way to read it is the beginning of a line followed by a capital K followed by an e followed by an n ^corn$ would be read as the beginning of a line followed immediately by a c followed by an o followed by an r followed by an n followed immediately by a NEWLINE
Alternation
Regex also provides an alternation character ( | )
for matching one or another subexpression

(K|T)en will match Ken or Ten ^(From|Subject): will match the From and Subject lines
of a typical email message
It matches a beginning of line followed by either the characters From or Subject followed by a :
The parenthesis ( ) are used to limit the scope of
the alternation
At(ten|nine)tion then matches Attention or
Atninetion, not Atten or ninetion as would happen without the parenthesis - Atten|ninetion
Optional Items
The ? (question mark) specifies an optional character, the single character that immediately precedes it
For example, if I am looking for the month of July, it may
be specified a July or Jul I could use (July|Jul) to search or I could use July?
30 January 2013
171
Repetition
The * (asterisk or star) has already been seen to specify zero or more occurrences of the immediately preceding character
+ (plus) means one or more
abc+d will match abcd, abccd, or abccccccd but will
not match abd while abc?d will match abd and abcd but not abccd
30 January 2013
172
Regex Summary
Character Name . [] [^] ^ $ \< \> ? * + {n,m} | () \1, \2,
30 January 2013
Meaning any one character any character listed any character not listed position at start of line position at end of line position at beginning of word position at end of word matches optional preceding character matches zero or more occurrences matches one or more occurrences matches m to n occurrences matches either expression it separates limits scope of | or encloses subexpressions for backreferencing Matches text previously matched within first, second, etc set of parenthesis
173
dot character class negated character class caret dollar backslash less-than backslash greater-than question mark asterisk or star plus sign n to m bar, or parenthesis backreference
grep
grep comes from the ed search command global
regular expression print or g\re\p This was such a useful command that it was written as a standalone utility There are two other variants, egrep and fgrep that comprise the grep family grep is the answer to the moments where you know you want a the file that contains a specific phrase but you cant remember its name
174
grep Family
Syntax
grep [-hilnw] [-e expression] [filename] egrep [-hiln] [-e expression] [-f filename] [expression] [filename] fgrep [-hilnx] [-e string] [-f filename] [string] [filename] -h - Do not display filenames -i - Ignore case -l - List only filenames containing matching lines -n - Precede each matching line with its line number -w - Search for the expression as a word (grep only) -x - Match whole line only (fgrep only)
Family Differences
grep - uses regular expressions for pattern
matching fgrep - file grep, does not use regular expressions, only matches fixed strings but can get search strings from a file egrep - exponential grep, uses a more powerful set of regular expressions
30 January 2013
176
Regex in the grep Family

The following one-character regexs match a single character
c - an ordinary character \c - an escaped special character . * [ \ ^ $ A \ followed by < > ( ) { or } A . (period) [string] any single character contained within the
brackets
30 January 2013
177
Regexs for grep and egrep

Regular Expression
c \m ^ $ . [xyz] [a-z] [^] \n r* r+ r? r1r2 r1|r2 $r$ (r)
Meaning
Normal (nonmeta) character Escape a character Start of Line End of Line Any single character except NEWLINE Any of x, y, z, Range Any single character not listed The nth tagged expression Zero or more r's One or more r's (egrep only) Zero or one r's (egrep only) Concatenation: r1 followed by r2 r1 or r2 (egrep only) Tagged regular expression r (grep only) Regular expression r
30 January 2013
178
grep Family Expressions

Regular Expression Matches x xyz \m ^ $ . [xy^$x] [^xy^$z] [a-z] [â-z] r* r1r2
30 January 2013
grep, fgrep, and egrep Ordinary characters match themselves (NEWLINES and metacharacters excluded) Ordinary strings match themselves grep and egrep Matches literal character m Start of line End of line Any single character Any of x, y, ^, $, or z Any one character other than x, y, ^, $, or z Any single character in given range Any single character not in range zero or more occurrences of regex r Matches r1 followed by r2
sed command
sed stream editor A stream editor is used to perform basic text transformations on an input stream (a file or input from a pipeline). Replace some substring with another
$ cat a
bird barks mouse runs
$ sed 's/barks/flies/' < a

bird flies mouse runs
sed command
Replace some characters with others
Replacing b with Q, i with X
$ cat a
bird barks mouse runs
$ cat a | sed 'y/bi/QX/'

QXrd Qarks mouse runs
30 January 2013
181
Advanced example
Calculate number of hits per remote host in Apache log file, most active hosts first.
Line format:
159.148.123.123 - - [28/Oct/2004:18:11:36 +0300] "GET /somefolder/file.php HTTP/1.1" 200 127602 "-" "Opera/7.54 (X11; Linux i686; U) [en]"
30 January 2013
182
Advanced example
$ cat access_log | cut -d ' ' -f 1 | sort | uniq -c | sort n r
First, cut out the host part (1st field), sort it get the number of repeated lines before the line (uniq c :
prefix lines by the number of occurrences), sort it numerically, reversed so that largest number comes first
Output:
348698 123485 12313 159.148.111.222 159.148.48.54 80.123.123.4
30 January 2013
183
Processes
Operating systems are about managing resources
Files are about storage (and I/O) resources
Processes are about CPU resources
Definition :A process is a single program running in its own
virtual address space, it receives a share (or time slice) of the CPU Processes and commands are not the same

A simple command (ls) generates a single process complex commands or scripts can invoke several simultaneous executing processes
30 January 2013
184
Process types
Interactive
initiated and controlled by terminal session can accept input from user as it runs can output results to the terminal Linux has job control to manage processes
Daemons
Typically started by init process
30 January 2013
185
Job control for interactive processes

foreground process
by default interactive processes run in the foreground
and the shell must wait until they complete only one process can be running in the foreground for each user. When a command is entered, thye shell will not process further input until the process is complete and the shell prompt is redisplayed But Remember that Linux is a multi-user system foreground and background relate to user sessions. Hence multiple foreground processes can be running.
30 January 2013
186

Background process
if a process has no output to terminal and will take
some time to run, rather than waiting, it can be run as a background process Once started in the background control returns immediately to the shell. a user can initiate multiple simultaneous background processes with the bash shell following a command with an & places in the background eg makewhatis &
30 January 2013

The jobs command show what process are suspended or running in the background Moving a process from the foreground to the background takes two steps
A process running in the foreground can be suspended
( ctrl-Z) A suspended process can be placed in the background (use bg command)
One suspended or background process can be brought to the foreground (fg command)

Command regular_command command & jobs Meaning Runs this command in the foreground. Run this command in the background Show commands running in the background. Suspend (stop, but not quit) a process running in the foreground (suspend). Interrupt (terminate and quit) a process running in the foreground. Every process running in the background gets a number assigned to it. Reactivate a suspended program in the background. Puts the job back in the foreground. End a process
Ctrl+Z
Ctrl+C %n bg %n fg %n kill
30 January 2013
Compound Commands
List of commands seperated by semi-colons List inside () to run inside a subshell
$ ( cd /usr; du )
30 January 2013
190
Daemons
server process running in the background often started at boot time offer service to other processes examples
ftpd - file transfer process daemon cron daemon - scheduling daemon httpd - web server
30 January 2013
191
Process Attributes
the ps and top commands can be used to look at current processes
PID - process ID : each process has a unique ID PPID parent process ID : The process that start a process
nice value - priority (-20 highest to 19 = lowest)

TTY associated terminal (TTY teletype terminal)
30 January 2013
192
Process Attributes
Displaying process information
ps
PID 4245 5314
TTY pts/7 pts/7
TIME 00:00:00 00:00:00
CMD bash ps
ps aux or ps auxw options most commonly used ps -ef | grep username top (process monitoring) uptime pstree
Process States
process can be in one of many states
R runnable (on the run queue) S sleeping T - stopped D uninterupptible sleep Z defunt (zombie) process
30 January 2013
194
Process life cycle

On startup a single process (called init, with PID 1) is created All subsequent process are derived from by the fork-exec mechanism
When a process forks it creates an exact copy of itself
called the child processes The exec system call them places the image of the new process over the copy before allowing it to be scheduled to run when a process dies (finishes or is killed) it sends a signal to its parent
Illustration of Process Control Calls
30 January 2013
196
Process Control
A process is a program in execution. Processes are identified by their process identifier, an
integer. Process control system calls

fork creates a new process execve is used after a fork to replace on of the two processess
virtual memory space with a new program exit terminates a process A parent may wait for a child process to terminate; wait provides the process id of a terminated child so that the parent can tell which child terminated. wait3 allows the parent to collect performance statistics about the child
A zombie process results when the parent of a defunct
child process exits before the terminated child.

Process Control (Cont.)

Processes communicate via pipes; queues of bytes between two processes that are accessed by a file descriptor. All user processes are descendants of one original
process, init. init forks a getty process: initializes terminal line parameters and passes the users login name to login.
login sets the numeric user identifier of the process to
that of the user executes a shell which forks subprocesses for user commands.
Signals
Facility for handling exceptional conditions
similar to software interrupts Most desirable way to end a process is to let it end normaly The interrupt signal, SIGINT, is used to stop a command before that command completes (usually produced by ^C) If all else fail, send a kill signal
30 January 2013
199
Signals
Signal name number SIGTERM 15 Meaning Terminate the process in an orderly way. Interrupt the process. A process can ignore this signal. Interrupt the process. A process can not ignore this signal. For daemons: reread the configuration file.
SIGINT
SIGKILL
2
9
SIGHUP
30 January 2013
200
Sending Signals to Process

Syntax
kill
[-signal] pid(s) kill [-signal] %jobID Send the specified signal to a process Default signal is TERM killall kill -l list all available signal
30 January 2013
201
Altering Process Scheduling Priority

At process invocation time
Syntax nice
[-n adjustment] command
Process are scheduled with a defult pririty of 0
Priority value range (-20 highest to 19 = lowest)

renice change the priority of a running process
renice
# [ [-p|-g ] PID] [[-u] user]
# is the priority value Once the priority value is raised, a non-privileged user cannot lower it
Linux Process Hierarchy

[0] /etc/inittab init [1]
Daemon e.g. httpd
Login shell
Child
Child
Child
Grandchild
Grandchild
30 January 2013
203
pstree
Kernel threads, not real processes Forked processes for network connections
Scheduling processes to execute Later

Syntax
at time <commands> atq [user] atrm [user | atjobID]
Commands will be executed at the time indicated

Non-redirected output is mailed to the user
30 January 2013
205
Scheduling processes-cron
Many aspects of system administration require
things to be done on a routine basis

Rotating logs building help files checking disk space
checking permissions
Linux provides scheduling mechanism refereed to as cron. Cron has two parts

Daemon - crond table of actions /etc/crontab
30 January 2013
206
Cron
the crond Daemon is started at boot time the daemon wakes up every minute to check its table of actions
if their is something to do -> run command
if nothing to do --> go back to sleep for 1 min
Cron table is a list (time,commnd) pairs. The format is

minute hour day month dayofweek command
30 January 2013
207
Crontab
Commands can be scheduled by
minute (0 59) Hour ( 0 to 23) Day of the month (1 - 31) Month ( 1 to 12) Day of the week (0=Sunday 6 = sat, or use
mon,tues,wed)
* Matches everything 1-3 Matches range 1,5 Matches Series

Crontab
Example
01 * * * * command1 # hourly at 1 minute past * 1 * * * command2 # daily at 1 am 04 1 1-5 * * command3 # run at 4 minute past 1 each day
30 January 2013
209
Cron
Under Redhat Linux the cron table is used to execute a set of commands in some special directories
/etc/cron.hourly /etc/cron.daily contains logrotate, makewhatis,slocate,tmpwatch /etc/cron.weekly /etc/cron.monthly You can add you own commands to the appropriate directory, but remember they need to be batch commands as they will run automatically
30 January 2013
210
crontab commands
crontab l List crontab e Edit crontab l > cronfile crontab cronfile administrator can explicitly give permission to specific users or exclude specific user by entering their user identification in :
/etc/cron.d/cron.allow
/etc/cron.d/cron.deny
30 January 2013
211
Common Uses for CRON

Cleaning the filesystem Distribution of config files Rotating log files Backups
30 January 2013
212
Shell scripts
Everything that can be called from command line, can also be called from shell script Shell Script is series of commands written in plain text file. Shell script is just like batch file is MS-DOS but have more power than the MS-DOS batch file. Interpreted line by line The same effect when entering the lines one by one in interactive shell
Running a shell script

As a parameter to shell interpreter
bash some_script.sh First line: #!/bin/bash

Make it executable (chmod +x some_script.sh) ./some_script.sh
Specifying interpreter on first line
30 January 2013
214
Debugging Shell Scripts

Display each command before it runs the command
Set the x option for the current shell
$set x $bash x script.sh set x or #!/bin/bash -x
Use the x to invoke the script
Add the set command at the top of the script
Then each command that the script executes is preceded
by a plus sign (+)

Distinguish the output of trace from any output that the script
produces
Turn off the debug with set +x

Sample shell script

#!/bin/bash # comment line echo "what a fine day: " date
Interpreter to be used
Regular commands to execute
Output, when called by ./test.sh: what a fine day:
Thu Oct 28 23:37:39 EEST 2004
30 January 2013
216
Variables
Sample hello world with variables
#!/bin/bash STR="Hello World!" echo $STR
When assigning, no $ is used When getting the contents use $ No data types string, number, character, all the same No declaring, just assign
Another sample shell script

EXAMPLE: backissa.sh
#!/bin/bash DATE=`date +%Y%m%d` WHAT='/home/issa' DEST="$DATE.tgz" tar cvzf $DEST $WHAT
Results in calling:
tar cvzf 20071028.tgz /home/issa
Command line arguments

Automatically defined variables
$0 contains shell script name $1 contains first argument $2 2nd $* - contains all arguments as a string
30 January 2013
219
Arithmetic expansion
Arithmetic expansion allows the evaluation of an arithmetic expression and the substitution of the result. The format for arithmetic expansion is:
$((expression))
A=5 B=4 C=$(($A*$B)) echo $C
30 January 2013
220
Control structures
if then for in while until case break and continue
30 January 2013
221
if then
Structure
if test-command then commands fi
Example:
if test $word1 = $word2 then echo Match fi
test
Command test is a built-in command Syntax
test expression [ expression ]
The test command evaluate an expression Returns a condition code indicating that the expression is either
true (0) or false (not 0)
Argument
Expression contains one or more criteria

Logical AND operator to separate two criteria: -a Logical OR operator to separate two criteria: -o Negate any criterion: ! Group criteria with parentheses
Separate each element with a SPACE

Test Criteria
Relop -gt -ge -eq -ne -le -lt Description Greater than Greater than or equal to Equal to Not euqal to Less than or equal to Less than
30 January 2013
224
Example
Create a shell script to check there is at least one parameter
Something like this:
if test $# -eq 0 then echo you must supply at least one arguments exit 1 fi
Test Criteria
Option
-d filename -f filename -r filename -s filename -u filename
Test Performed on file

Exists and is a directory file Exists and is a regular file Exists and it readable Exists and has a length greater than 0 Exists and has setuid bit set
-w filename
-x filename
Exists and it writable

Exists and it is executable
30 January 2013
226
Example
Check weather or not the parameter is a non-zero readable file name
Continue with the previous script and add something
like
if [ -r $filename a s $filename ] then fi
30 January 2013
227
Test Criteria
String testing
Criteria String -n string -z string String1 = string2 String1 != string2 meaning True if string is not the null string True if string has a length greater than zero True if string has a length of zero True if string1 is equal to string2 True if string1 is not equal to string2
30 January 2013
228
Example
Check users confirmation
First, read user input echo -n Please confirm: [Yes | No] read user_input Then, compare it with standard answer yes if [ $user_input = Yes ] then echo Thanks for your confirmation! fi What will happen if no around $user_input and user
just typed return?

ifthenelse
Structure
if test-command then commands else commands fi
You can use semicolon (;) ends a command the same way a NEWLINE does.
if [ ]; then i if [ 5 = 5 ]; then echo "equal"; fi
ifthenelif
Structure
if test-command then commands elif test-command then commands . . . else commands fi
for
Structure
for loop-index do commands done
Automatically takes on the value of each of command
line arguments, one at a time. Which implies

for arg in $@
30 January 2013
232
Example
Structure
for loop-index in argument_list do commands done
Example:
for file in * do if [ -d $file ]; then echo $file fi done
Example-2
for i in 1 2 3 4 5 do echo "Welcome $i times" done
30 January 2013
234
Example-3
for (( expr1; expr2; expr3 )) do repeat while expr2 is true done
for (( i = 0 ; i <= 5; i++ do echo "Welcome $i times" done ))
30 January 2013
235
Example-4
You can use for together with file name expansion to do some action for several files
#!/bin/bash for x in *txt; do cat $x done;
30 January 2013
236
while
Structure
while test_command do commands done
Example:
while [ $number lt 10 ] do number=èxpr $number + 1` done
until
Structure
until test_command do commands done
Example:
secretname=jenny name=noname until [ $name = $secretname ] do echo Your guess: \c read name done
break and continue

Interrupt for, while or until loop The break statement
transfer control to the statement AFTER the done
statement terminate execution of the loop
The continue statement

Transfer control to the statement TO the done
statement Skip the test statements for the current iteration Continues execution of the loop
239
Example
for index in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 do if [ $index le 3 ]; then echo continue continue fi echo $index if [ $index ge 8 ]; then echo break break fi done
30 January 2013
240
case
Structure
case test_string in pattern-1 ) commands_1 ;; pattern-2 ) commands_2 ;; esac
default case: catch all pattern *)

case
Special characters used in patterns
Pattern * ? [] | Matches Matches any string of characters. Matches any single character. Defines a character class. A hyphen specifies a range of characters Separates alternative choices that satisfy a particular branch of the case structure
30 January 2013
242
Example
#!/bin/bash echo \n Command MENU\n echo a. Current data and time echo b. Users currently logged in echo c. Name of the working directory\n echo Enter a,b, or c: \c read answer echo
30 January 2013
243
case $answer in Example-continue a) date ;; b) who ;; c) pwd ;; *) echo There is no selection: $answer ;; esac
30 January 2013
244
echo and read

The backslash quoted characters in echo
\c suppress the new line
\n new line \r return \t tab
Read
read variable1 [variable2 ] Read one line of standard input Assign each word to the corresponding variable, with the leftover words assigned to last variables If only one variable is specified, the entire line will be assigned to that variable.
Built-in: exec
Execute a command:
Syntax: exec command argument Run a command without creating a new process
Run a command in the environment of the original process Exec does not return control to the original program Exec can be the used only with the last command that you want to run in a script Example, run the following command in your current shell, what will happen? $exec who
30 January 2013
246
Built-in: exec
Redirect standard output, input or error of a shell script from within the script

exec < infile exec > outfile 2> errfile
Example: $ more redirect.sh exec > /dev/tty echo "this is a test of redirection"
$ ./redirect.sh 1 > /dev/null 2 >& 1 this is a test of redirection

Catch a signal: builtin trap

Built-in trap
Syntax: trap commands signal-numbers
Shell executes the commands when it catches one of the signals Then resumes executing the script where it left off.
Just capture the signal, not doing anything with it trap signal_number
Often used to clean up temp files Signals

SIGHUP SIGINT SIGKILL SIGTERM SIGSTP
1 2 9 15 24
disconnect line control-c kill with -9 default kill control-z
30 January 2013
248
Example
$ cat inter #!/bin/bash trap 'echo PROGRAM INTERRUPTED' 2 while true do echo "programming running." sleep 1 done
30 January 2013
249
A partial list of built-in

bg, fg, jobs
break, continue
cd, pwd echo, read
eval
exec exit export, unset test
job control change the loop working directory display/read scan and evaluate the command execute a program exit from current shell export/ remove a val or fun compare arguments
30 January 2013
250
A partial list of builtin

kill
set
shift times
trap
type
sends a signal to a process or job sets flag or argument promotes each command line argument displays total times for the current shell traps a signal show whether linux command, build-in, file creation mask waits for a process to terminate. print the value of one or more resource limits
function umask wait ulimit

30 January 2013
functions
A shell function is similar to a shell script
It stores a series of commands for execution at a later time. The shell stores functions in the memory Shell executes a shell function in the same shell that called it.
Where to define
In .profile In your script Or in command line
Remove a function
Use unset built-in
30 January 2013
252
functions
Syntax
function_name() { commands }
30 January 2013
253
Example
$ whoson() >{ > date > echo "users currently logged on" > who } $ whoson Tue Feb 1 23:28:44 EST 2005 users currently logged on issa :0 Jan 31 08:46 issa pts/1 Jan 31 08:54 (:0.0) issa pts/2 Jan 31 09:02 (:0.0)
$ more .profile setenv() { if [ $# -eq 2 ] then eval $1=$2 export $1 else echo "usage: setenv NAME VALUE" 1>&2 fi } $ . .profile $ setenv T_LIBRARY /usr/local/t $ echo $T_LIBRARY /usr/local/t
Example-2
Boot Terminology
Loader:
Program that moves bits from disk (usually)
to memory and then transfers CPU control to the newly loaded bits (executable).
Bootloader / Bootstrap:
Program that loads the first program (the kernel).
Boot PROM / PROM Monitor / BIOS:

Persistent code that is already loaded on power-up.
Boot Manager:
Program that lets you choose the first program to load.
30 January 2013
256
Boot Sequence overview

Bios Initialization Boot Loader (LILO,GRUB) Kernel initialization init start and enters desired runlevel by executing:
/etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit /etc/rc.d/rc and /etc/rc.d/rc?.d/ /etc/rc.d/rc.local X Display Manager if default runlevel =5
30 January 2013
257
Bios Initialization
Peripherals detected Boot device selected First boot of boot device read and executed
30 January 2013
258
GRUB and grub.conf

GRUB- the Grand Unified Bootloader
Command-line interface available at boot prompt Boot from ext2/ext3, ReiserFS, JFS, FAT, .. Filesystems
Support MD5 password protection
/boot/grub/grub.conf Change to grub.conf take effect immediatly
30 January 2013
259
kernel Initialization
Kernel boot time functions
Device detection Device driver initialization Mounts root filesystem read only Load initial process (init)
30 January 2013
260
init Initialization
init read its config: /etc/inittab
Initial runlevel System initialization script Run level specific script directories Trap certain key sequence Define UPS power fail / restore scripts Spawn gettys on virtual consoles
Initialize X in run level 5
30 January 2013
261
Startup Sequence
Power-on
LILO/GRUB
Boot loader
Load Kernel
Linux
Create init process
hardware
rc.sysinit
runlevel 0-6
rc.local
Ready
Initialisation Scripts
Some Linux inittab action valus

Action
Boot Bootwait Ctrlaltdel Initdefault off Once Powerfail Set the detault runlevel Disable the entry For every runlevel When init receive SIGPWR signal
Meaning
Runs when system boots Init waits for complete
Powerokwait
Respawn Sysinit Wait
30 January 2013
SIGPWR and /etc/powerstatus has ok

Restart the process whenever it terminates Before any boot Upon entrying the run mode and waits to complete
System Initialization Script : rc.sysinit

/etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit - does a range of basic task:
configures networking sets hostname checks the root file system for repairs
check root file system quota & turns quotas for groups

and users mount non-root file systems and checks them for repairs turns on swapping (virtual memory subsystem) checks and loads modules (drivers) Set the system clock
30 January 2013
Linux Run Levels

Linux defines 7 run levels
The run level is selected by either The default in /etc/inittab at boot Passing an argument from boot loader Running init x after boot ( where x is the desired run level) Show current and previous run level /sbin/runlevel or who r Each run level defines a set of commands that are run to
stop and start processes. The actual commands are held in /etc/rc.d/init.d directory
Linux Run Levels

The run level directories rc0.d, rc2.drc6.d contain
links to the actual commands Each command is prefixed with S or K and a number 0099 S prefix means that a process should be started e.g. S10network K prefix means that a process should be stopped (killed) K70syslog The numbers determine the order in which the commands are run from lowest first to highest last
30 January 2013
266
Linux Run Levels 0-2

Runlevel 0 Directory /etc/rc.d/rc0.d
Actually shutdown sequence Kill all processes Turn off virtual memory system (i.e. swap partition) unmounts swap and file systems
Runlevel 1 /etc/rc.d/rc1.d
single user mode used for maintenance by system administrators when
they need sole control of machine, e.g. reconfiguring hardware installing software
Multi-user + networking (minus NFS)
Linux Run level 3-6

Default run level
multi-user + NFS
not defined ( available for customization)
Same as 3 under Redhat this but includes starting X
windows
reboot similar to 0 but allow allows option to shutdown (halt)
30 January 2013
or reboot
268
/etc/rc.d/rc.local
Run after the runlevel specific script Common place for custom modification
30 January 2013
269
Shutdown
shutdown allows...
users to be warned the systems is going down the contents of disk caches to be written disk file systems to be marked as having been closed properly
( avoid file system check on next startup)
Access to the shutdown command is restricted (it is in /sbin)

shutdown -h now (h for halt)
Other command for shutdown the system: halt, poweroff, init 0
30 January 2013
270
System Reboot
Rebooting rarely fixes problems in Linux
If you feel a reboot is necessary try bringing the system
down to runlevel 1 and then back up to runlevel 3 or 5. this is much faster thn reboot
Rebooting the system

shutdown -r now reboot init 6
30 January 2013
271
Controlling services
Utilities to control default service startup
redhat-config services: graphical utility that requires
an X interface ntsysv: usable in virtual consols chkconfig : fast, versatile command line utility that work well and is usable with script
Utilities to control service manually

service: immediately start and stop a standalone
service chkconfig: immediately start and stop xinetd managed services and others
Kernel Modules
Modular kernel components
components that need not be resident in the kernel for
all configurations and hardware

Peripheral device drivers Supplementary filesystems
Modules configurable at load time /lib/modules Controlling modules : lsmod, insmod, rmmod Controlling modules intelligently : modprobe, depmod
30 January 2013
273
Kernel Module Configuration

Module Configuration: /etc/modprobe.conf
Module aliases Module parameters
Module examination: /sbin/modinfo
30 January 2013
274
The /proc file system

/proc is a virtual file system containing information about the running kernel Content of files under /proc may be viewed using cat e.g.
cat /proc/interrupts
Provide information on system hardware , networking setting and activity, memory usage The /proc/sys subdirectory allow administrator to modify certain parameters of running kernel, but the modifications are temporary and not saved at system shutdown
/proc/sys configuration with sysctl

The sysctl command manage such setting in a static and centralized fashion :
/etc/sysctl.conf
sysctl is called at boot time by rc.sysinit and use setting in /etc/sysctl.conf
30 January 2013
276
General Hardware resources

dmesg and /var/log/dmesg kudzu detect and configure new or changed hardware on a system
/etc/sysconfig/hwconf /usr/share/hwdata/
/proc filesystem hwbrowser
30 January 2013
277
System Monitoring
top, gnome-system-monitor display snapshot of processes vmstat report virtual memory stats iostat list information on resource usage, including I/O statistics free -summary of system memory usage
30 January 2013
278
File System
File System is developed for
create/store/load/delete/seek file on media Media example Magnetic Media Tape Floppy disk Hard disk Optical Media Cdrom Dvd
30 January 2013
279
File System of windows OS

Windows 98 and Windows ME
Support FAT16, FAT32
Windows 2000 Support FAT16,FAT32, NTFS Windows XP
Support FAT32, NTFS
30 January 2013
280
File System in Linux

File System in Linux is divided into 2 type
Linux Swap is used in virtual memory system Linux File System is used to store file there is various type of file system

ext2 ( is first introduced in kernel 2.0.x ) reiserfs ( is first introduced in kernel 2.2.x ) ext3 ( is first introduced in kernel 2.4.x )
30 January 2013
281
Different between Linux and Windows File System

Characteristic
File System
Windows
NTFS, FAT
Linux
ext2,ext3 Each partitions is mounted under /
Reference Root of each Each partition will partition point be own root Ex. C:, D:, F:
30 January 2013
282
Linux File System Layout

/
/etc
/boot /dev /usr
/home
/proc /var /lib /tmp
- first of mount point in linux - keep linux default configuration - keep important linux booting files - keep all device files - keep all user binary and X library - keep user home directory - is pseudo file system for tracking running process and state of linux system - keeping mail, log file and printer spooling - contain shared library that is required by system program - contain system temporary file
30 January 2013
283
How Linux mount this layout?

/ hda3
hda1
/var
/home
hda4
Using mount command

Mount [-t FS_TYPE] [-o OPTIONS] DEVICE MOUNT_POINT

type ex. ext2, ext3, reiserfs, device ex. /dev/hda1, /dev/hdb1, target-dir ex. /, /var, /home, /mnt/cdrom,
30 January 2013
284
How to use mount command?

/ hda3, ext3
hda1,ext3
/var
/home
hda4,ext3
mount command example

mount t ext3 /dev/hda3
/ mount t ext3 /dev/hda4 /home mount t ext3 /dev/hda1 /var

check current mounted partition? mount Check current mounted by using

command without parameter Example result for checking current mounted partition
30 January 2013
286
How to use un-mount partition?

umount is used to un-mount partition
umount directory umount device
Example
umount /var
or umount /hda1 mount -t auto /dev/fd0 /mnt/floppy umount /mnt/floppy
30 January 2013
287
Where is linux store list of mounting partition when booting ?

It is locate in /etc/fstab file Example of fstab file
30 January 2013
288
Assume we would like to add windows partition (hdb1, FAT32) that linux have to mount at boot time at /mnt/windows
file system = /dev/hdb1
How can we add new mount partition entry in /etc/fstab?
mount point = /mnt/window

type = vfat Options = defaults Dump = 0 Pass = 1
30 January 2013
289
From the previous information, we have to add following line in /etc/fstab files
/dev/hba1 /mnt/windows vfat defaults 0 0
add new mount partition entry in /etc/fstab?
30 January 2013
290
Managing partition
Create Partitions using :
fdisk /dev/hda fdisk -l /dev/hda or cat /proc/partitions
display a report
Gnu parted advanced (create,copy,resize,etc.. )
30 January 2013
291
Managing file system

mkfs ( general command) mkfs.msdos -v /dev/fd0 mke2fs -v /dev/hda7 e2label /dev/hda7 e2fsck /dev/hda7 resize2sf /dev/hda7
30 January 2013
292
Managing file system

mkswap /dev/hdb6 swapon (activate swap space) tune2fs -j /dev/hda7 (convert from ext2 to ext3) Before convert you have to remount the file system as read only mount /dev/hda7 -o remount,ro
30 January 2013
293
Packages
In more widespread linux distributions, programs are distributed in binary RPM, DEB or modified TGZ formats RPM (RedHat Package Management) packages are used on RedHat, Mandrake, Suse, Conectiva DEB are used on the open source distribution Debian and its forks Modified TGZ are used on SlackWare
30 January 2013
294
Packaging Approaches: Source vs. Binary

There are two fundamentally different
approaches for packaging-based software distributions:

providing source packages containing
source package
distribution size package size package dependencies installation reproducability installation run-time stability installation system alignment installation time
binary package
the vendor sources plus instructions for automated build and installation. providing binary packages containing the final installation files only.
Most packaging facilities support both
approaches (including RPM), although often not equally well. Both approaches have each their pros and cons, nevertheless all software distributions focus on one of them.
30 January 2013
295
Dependencies
Dependencies management is a very useful feature of package management software
They keep systems in a consistent state and guarantee the applications to run in the expected way
rpm or dpkg commands have limited dependencies management features
They can report which library a package relies on, but the library can itself rely on other packages
30 January 2013
296
Dependencies - Example
Installing a package mod_test1 : # rpm -Uvh mod_test1-xxx.rpm error: failed dependencies: package-a1 is needed by mod_test1 # rpm -Uvh package-a1-xxxx.rpm error: failed dependencies: package-b2 is needed by package-a1 # rpm -Uvh package-b2-xxxx.rpm And so on
30 January 2013
297
Main Package Distribution Formats in Linux

There is no standard package manager in Linux Packages Distributed in Binaries or Source Code form Main Package Management Standards
Tarball files (.tar.gz/.tar.bz2)
The old-fashioned way of distributing software in Linux/Unix Compatible with all distros Main package manager in Slackware, Gentoo Introduced by RedHat and has been adopted by many other distributions (Fedora, Mandrake, SuSe) . The most popular Linux package format Introduced by Debian distribution
RPM (RedHat Package Manager) (.rpm)
DEB (Debian Package Manager) (.deb)
30 January 2013
Installing from Tarball files

Software Packages coming in source code archives have to be
compiled before installed Usually come in .tar.gz or .tar.bz2 archives Typical compilation/installation steps
Unpack the archive:
tar xzvf <package_name>.tar.gz tar xvjf <package_name>.tar.bz2 cd <extracted_dir_name> ./configure make make install
299
Change to the extracted directory
Run source configuration script as follows:
Build the source code using the GNU Make utility as follows:
Install the package as follows:
INSTALL or README files also exist in this directory giving

30 January 2013
application-specific usage information Unix System Administration & Programming
Backup Tools
tar
tar jxvf mytarball.tar.bz2 - Extract files from
30 January 2013
mytarball.tar.bz2 tar zxvf mytarball.tar.gz - Extract files from mytarball.tar.gz -z : Use gzip compression -j : Use bzip2 compression -x : Extract -v : Verbose -f : Use file gzip compression is used for tarballs with the extensions .tar.gz, .tgz, Bzip2 compression which is slightly better but requires more CPU is used in tarballs with the extensions .tar.bz2 and .
300
Managing Software in RedHat-based distributions

Using the command line, packages are installed using rpm utility program rpm i install package
rpm -i <package_name>.rpm
rpm e rpm U rpm q

30 January 2013
erase package upgrade package query packages (e.g., -a = all)

rpm e <package_name>
rpm U <package_name>.rpm
Package Management
Using RPM
To install or upgrade a package: rpm -Uvh package-1.0.i386.rpm
To remove a package: rpm -e package-1.0
To determine what version of a package you have
installed:
rpm -qa | grep package_name
To determine what package a file "belongs" to: rpm -qf file
30 January 2013
302
Example: rpm -q
rpm -q -i telnet
rpm -qi -p /mnt/cdrom/RedHat/RPMS/ggv*.rpm # Gives some info about ggv

rpm -qf /boot/vmlinuz
kernel-2.4.18.i586 rpm -qf `which sol` gnome-games
30 January 2013
303
Other Packaging Methods

The Debian case (APT - Advanced Packaging Tool)
The first distribution used organised on-line
package repositories APT utilities set (apt-get, apt-cache etc.) is provided for managing packages on these repositories Can manage packages in binaries and source format Provides packages inter-dependency auto-resolve Contacts repositories listed in /etc/apt/sources.list file
apt-get remove gnome

30 January 2013
APT for RPM
Brazilian distribution Conectiva ported the apt system on its linux distribution, which uses rpm packages Apt is now available for all distributions using rpm, also thanks to the SourceForge project apt4rpm (http://apt4rpm.sourceforge.net) Some features of Debian apt are not yet available, like package priority or requests to change configuration files, because of some differences in deb and rpm format
30 January 2013
Advanced Package Tool for RPM

High level package management tool from Debian
ported to RPM based systems (Conectiva Linux, RedHat, Fedora, SUSE, Scientific Linux ...) Installs the whole software with one command: apt-get install lcg-ui Automatically resolves dependencies for specified packages and downloads required rpms Central configuration file with repositories' URLs (/etc/apt/sources.list or /etc/apt/sources.list.d) Automated or half-automated software upgrades Note! APT requires that there are no broken dependencies in the OS
30 January 2013
User administrator

chmod, chown , chgrp useradd username userdel username Also can use adduser groupadd groupname gpasswd -a myuser mygroup groups username chage
chage -M 365 student
30 January 2013
307
Host Configuration
To connect a host to the network, the administrator
needs the following information.

Host name for the system Domain name for the system IP address for the system Netmask for the network (if applicable) Default router (gateway) for the network Name service used on the network Name or address of the machine providing name service
30 January 2013
309
Host Configuration
Every operating system stores network configuration
information in files. The /etc/sysconfig directory contains scripts and data files required to configure many system services, including networking in redhat Some of these files specify information about the hosts address and host name Other files specify which network services the host will allow, and which other hosts on the network provide services the host may require.
30 January 2013
310
Configuration Utility
netconfig text based network configuration utility
Only write config files. Does not activate device or changes Used by kudzu when new network card found at boot time
Redhat-config-network gnome based network
configuration utility
30 January 2013
311
Configuration NIC
Setting IP address : Static or Dynamic Static Configuration: Ifconfig
The ifconfig command is used to bind the IP address, host
name, net mask, broadcast address, and other network configuration parameters to a particular network interface. The ifconfig command is run at boot time by the startup scripts called by the init process. You can use the ifconfig command to examine and/or modify interface parameters while the system is up and running. When issued with the a flag, ifconfig prints the configuration information for all interfaces.
Configuration NIC
Example Ifconfig eth0 inet 192.168.17.23 broadcast 192.168.17.255 Netmask 255.255.255.0 To instructs the kernel to activate the eth0 Ifconfig eth0 up
30 January 2013
313
Configuration NIC
The ifcfg-ifname File
The /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-ifname files supply
the configuration information for each network interface. These script files contain a series of keywords and values parsed at boot time.
DEVICE="eth0" # The interface name BOOTPROTO="none" # Set to DHCP to use DHCP IPADDR="172.16.205.99" # Hosts static IP address NETWORK=172.16.205.96 # The network number BROADCAST=172.16.205.127 # The broadcast address NETMASK="255.255.255.240" # The netmask ONBOOT="yes" # yes to configure at boot
Host Configuration
The ifup Script
The /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifup script file is invoked at boot time by
init. The script reads the interface files and parses the entries. The information from the entries is used to configure each network interface with the proper values.
The ifdown Script

The /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifdown script file is invoked at shutdown
time by init. The script reads the interface files and parses the entries. The information from the entries is used to shut down each network interface.
The network-functions Script

The /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/network-functions script file contains a
library of functions used by the ifup and ifdown scripts. The functions include code for setting the net mask, host name, broadcast addresses, and gateways. The functions perform operations required to configure an interface up or down.
DHCP
Using DHCP to Assign IP Addresses
A tool that simplifies IP configuration is the Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP). DHCP automatically assigns an IP address to a host at boot time. Hosts that use the DHCP protocol to obtain their network configuration information are typically referred to as DHCP clients. Hosts that supply DHCP configuration information to other hosts are referred to as DHCP servers.
DHCP Client Configuration

In most cases, the simplest method of configuring a host as a DHCP
client is to do so when the operating system installation process is invoked. In redhat the daemon is now dhclient which started automatically by /sbin/ifup script.
30 January 2013
316
Global Network Parametres

/etc/sysconfig/network

Networking=yes|no Hostname=<fqdn > Gateway=<gateway IP> NISDOMAIN=<NIS domainname>
30 January 2013
317
Default Route
Global default defined in:
/etc/sysconfig/network Gateway=<gateway IP>
Default gateway can also be defined in:
/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-xxx
Global default routes overrides ifcfg-xxx rout
30 January 2013
318
Static Routes
Static routes defined by interface

/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/route-eth0 /etc/sysconfig/networking/devices/etho.route route n netstat -n
Display with:
30 January 2013
319
netstat command
netstat
The netstat program is available under most operating
systems. In general, netstat can display packet counts, and configuration information for your system. Some of the typical uses of netstat include display of input/output packet counts per interface, display of TCP/UDP sockets in use on a host, and display of the routing tables for a host.
30 January 2013
320
Name Resolution
hostname display or set the systems name
Is initially set by rc.sysinit from $hostname variable in /etc/sysconfig/network
/etc/hosts - local database of hostname to IP address mapping

Checked before DNS Useful for small isolated networks
30 January 2013
321
Name Resolution
/etc/hosts File
One of the most frequently used network administration files is the
/etc/hosts file Even Windows systems have a version of the hosts file, called lmhosts. The file is a registry of IP addresses and associated host names known to a system. At a minimum, it must contain the loop-back address (127.0.0.1) and the IP address for the host. The hosts file is one of the resources consulted by applications in order to resolve a host name to an IP address when communications are requested. The format of host file entries follows.
IP address 192.168.44.55 Fully.Qualified.Name issa.svuonline.org host_alias issa
322
30 January 2013
DNS Client Configuration

/etc/resolv.conf File use the information in the /etc/resolv.conf file to configure the name service client on the host. The file consists of keywords and values. Some of the more common keywords follow. domain: DNS domain of this host nameserver: IP address of the name server(s) this host should contact. The preferred name server should be listed first.
30 January 2013
323
DNS Utility
Many useful utilities are included in the bind-utils
RPM package, including:
host: gather host/domain information host ns1.redhat.com Host a redhat.com

Can send query to name server directly dig @ns1.redhat.com redhat.com
dig ( domain name groper) flexible tools

nslookup
30 January 2013
324
/etc/services file
The /etc/services file contains a list of network
ports and services that correspond to those ports. For example, port 25 is defined as the SMTP port, whereas port 80 is reserved as the hypertext transport protocol daemon (httpd) port. To add a new service to a host, the administrator must add a port number and service name pair to the /etc/services file.
Network Diagnostics
ping
Network packet loss and latency measurement tool
netstat
multipurpose network information tools
traceroute
The traceroute utility does exactly what its name implies: it
traces the route from point A to point B. This utility can be very useful when trying to determine why two hosts cannot communicate. For example, to trace the route from a specific local host to a distant host, the administrator could invoke the following command.
File Sharing
To share files across the network, Linux uses two primary mechanism:
Network File System (NFS): for sharing with other Linux
and UNIX systems Samba: for sharing files with Windows-based computer
30 January 2013
327
NFS
Linux can be both an NFS client and an NFS server The NFS daemon is mountd /etc/exports control which file systems can be exported
/mnt/export issa.svuonline.org(ro) You have to run exportfs following changes to /etc/exports
or restart the NFS daemon manually client make the mount request with mount
mount issa:/mnt/export /mnt/local The : is the indicator to the mount command that this is NFS mount
30 January 2013
Samba
Provide file and print services to SMB/CIFS clients (Server Message Block/Common Internet File System). It is used to integrate windows-machines with Linux servers Can customize configuration per machine basis using
smb.conf file Samba include web-based interface for configuration called swat (Samba Web Administration Tools)
30 January 2013
329
Web Services - apache

Default location for web pages can be configured in the httpd.conf (usually in /etc/httpd/conf) Other file locations :
/etc/httpd/conf contain configuration files /etc/httppd/logs has the access and error logs>
Start apache the first time

/usr/sbin/apachectl start
30 January 2013
330
Mail Systems
Mail User Agent: many choices from console or graphic interface Mail Transport Agent: responsible for receiving and delivering message using the Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP)
Accept messages from the user agent
Understand destination address Deliver mail originating on the local machine to the proper
mailboxes if local, or a delivery agent if remote Receive incoming mail from other delivery agents and deliver to local user
Mail Systems
The default mail transport agents is Sendmail, can be difficult to configure, several newer ( qmail, postfix, and exim) sendmail behavior is governed by sendmail.cf file
30 January 2013
332

Adapted: Mohammad Ariful Hyder Associate Professor, Dept. of CSE Dhaka City College, Dhaka

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Adapted: Mohammad Ariful Hyder Associate Professor, Dept. of CSE Dhaka City College, Dhaka

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Adapted

Unix System Administration & Programming

Unix System Administration & Programming

GNU Project / FSF

Free Software Foundation

Unix System Administration & Programming

GPL- GNU General Public License

Unix System Administration & Programming

GPL- GNU General Public License-2

Unix System Administration & Programming

Unix System Administration & Programming

improvements to the Linux OS to Linux Development Team over the internet

Unix System Administration & Programming

based Linux is for Intel based, multiprocessor compatibility (SMPs)

Fully supported Many distribution (redhat,suse,fedora,ubuntu ...)

Red Hat Enterprise Linux

Unix System Administration & Programming

Installing Red Hat Linux

Installation method Network Configuration

Configuring Boot manager (LILO, Grub) Select Package

Unix System Administration & Programming

Hard disk partitioning

hdd: Secondary Slave IDE

Unix System Administration & Programming

Hard disk partitioning-2

Unix System Administration & Programming

Hard disk partitioning-3

Unix System Administration & Programming

Hard disk partitioning-4

Unix System Administration & Programming

Hard disk partitioning-5

Boot Program Partition Table

Unix System Administration & Programming

Hard disk partitioning-6

Boot Sectors P. P. 1 Type: FAT32

Hard disk partitioning-7

P3: Extended D: < 1024 E: F:

Unix System Administration & Programming

Unix System Administration & Programming

Unix System Administration & Programming

Each item is separated by a space

Options modify the commands behavior

Separated commands with semicolon (;)

Changing Your Password

From a terminal, use passwd

Unix System Administration & Programming

Linux Graphical Environments

KDE Desktop environment based on the Qt toolkit

Unix System Administration & Programming

Linux File Hierarchy Concepts

Unix System Administration & Programming

Linux File Hierarchy Concepts

Unix System Administration & Programming

Unix System Administration & Programming

Listing Directory Contents

ls [options] [files or dirs]

Unix System Administration & Programming

The Home Directory

Unix System Administration & Programming

Unix System Administration & Programming

directory Can be used as a shorter way to specify a file name

Unix System Administration & Programming