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P
Gases
T
Gases
Volume
P
Liquids
T
Liquids
Water
Extensive and Intensive Properties
Intensive properties are those that are
independent of the size of system, such as
temperature, pressure, and density.
Extensive properties are dependent on the size
(or extent) of the system. Mass m, volume V,
and total energy E are some examples of
extensive properties.
Criteria to differentiate extensive and
intensive properties is illustrated in the Figure.
Extensive properties per unite mass are called
specific properties (i.e. specific volume).
State
A state is defined as a condition of a substance that can
be described by certain observable macroscopic
properties. (T, P, , v etc.)
In above figure, the system does not undergo any
change. All properties can be measured throughout the
system. Hence the condition of the system is completely
described. This condition is called state 1.
Now remove some weights. If the value of even one
property changes, then the state will change to different
one (state 2).
The word State refers to the condition of a system as it is
described by its properties.
State 1
m = 2kg
T
1
= 20 C
V
1
= 1.5 m
3
m = 2kg
T
1
= 20 C
V
1
= 2.5 m
3
State 2
Equilibrium
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
The word equilibrium implies a state of
balance.
Equilibrium state means that there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system.
A system is said to be in thermodynamic
equilibrium if it maintains thermal,
mechanical, phase, and chemical equilibrium.
Thermal Equilibrium
Thermal equilibrium means that there is no temperature differential
through the system.
20 C
30 C
30 C
35 C 40 C
No thermal equilibrium
32 C
32 C 32 C
32 C
32 C
Thermal equilibrium
Mechanical Equilibrium
Mechanical equilibrium means that there is no change in pressure in the
system.
(a) Slow compression (quasi-equilibrium)
20 pa 20 pa
20 pa
20 pa
20 pa
(b) fast compression (non quasi-equilibrium)
20 pa
20 pa
90 pa
Phase Equilibrium
Phase equilibrium means that the mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
Water
Vapor, P > 0
After some time
Water
Vapor, P = P
v
After long time
Water
Vacuum
t= 0, P = 0
At t = 0
Chemical Equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium means that the chemical composition of the system
does not change with time
The State Postulate
We mentioned earlier that a state is described uniquely by measuring a
few of its properties. The remaining properties will assume certain
values. The question here is how much is this few?.
The answer depends on how simple or complex our system is.
If we have a system where the gravitational, electrical, magnetic,
motion and surface tension effects are absent, then this system is called
a simple compressible system.
According to what is called state postulate, the number of properties
required to completely specify the state of such system is two
independent, intensive properties.
The State Postulate
If, however, the gravitational effects are important in the simple
compressible system, then the elevation z needs to be specified in addition
to the two properties necessary to fix the state.
The state postulate requires that the two properties are independent of each
other.
Two properties are considered to be independent if one property is varied
while the other one is constant.
Temperature and specific volume are good examples.
You will see, however, in coming units that temperature and pressure are
not always independent of each other. They become dependent during
phase change processes.
Processes and Cycles
Any change from one equilibrium state to
another is called a process.
Process diagrams are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
The series of states through which a system
passes during a process is called a path
To describe a process completely initial and
final states as well as the path it follows, and
the interactions with the surrounding should be
specified
A process with identical end states is called a
cycle
Process diagrams plotted by employing
thermodynamic properties as coordinates are
very useful in visualizing the processes.
Isothermal process means a
process at constant T.
Isobaric process means a
process at constant pressure
Isochoric process means a
process at constant volume
Quasi-Equilibrium process
During a quasi-static or quasi-equilibrium
process, the system remains infinitesimally
close to an equilibrium state at all times.
A sufficiently slow process that allow the
system to adjust itself internally so that
properties in one part of the system do not
change any faster than those at other parts.
Compression is very slow and thus
equilibrium is attained at any intermediate
state. Therefore, the intermediate states can
be determined and process path can be
drawn.
It is an idealized process but many process
closely approximate it with negligible error.
Quasi-Equilibrium, Work-Producing Devices
Deliver the Most Work (it is the standard to
which other processes can be compared)
(a) Slow compression (quasi-equilibrium)
20 pa 20 pa
20 pa
20 pa
20 pa
State 1
State 2
Process path
P
V
Intermediate
states
20
Non-Quasi-Equilibrium process
Compression process is fast and
thus equilibrium can not be
attained.
Intermediate states can not be
determined and the process path
can not be defined. Instead we
represent it as dashed line.
(b) Fast compression (non quasi-
equilibrium)
20 pa
20 pa
90 pa
State 1
State 2
P
V
Non-equilibruim
process
20
90
?
Forms of Energy
In absence of magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects, the total energy of a
system consists of the kinetic, potential, and internal energies and is expressed as
The macroscopic form of energy are those a system possesses as a whole with
respect to some outside reference (i.e. kinetics and potential).
The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure of the
system , independent of outside reference frames (i.e. internal).
The change in the total energy AE of a stationary system (closed system) is
identical to the change in its internal energy AU.
(kJ/kg)
2
basis mass unit a on or,
(kJ),
2
(kJ),
2
2
gz
v
u pe ke u e
mgz
mv
mu me
PE KE U E
+ + = + + =
+ + =
+ + =
Forms of Energy (continued)
The portion of the internal energy of a system associated
with the
1. kinetic energies of the molecules is called the sensible
energy.
2. phase of a system is called the latent energy.
3. atomic bonds in a molecule is called chemical energy.
4. strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself is
called nuclear energy.
5. Static energy (stored in a system)
6. Dynamic energy: energy interactions at the system
boundary (i.e. heat and work)
kg kJ e
U
/ 10 73 . 6
10
235
=
= = = = S
Specific gravity
P
2
= P
atm
+ h
FIGURE 161
Schematic for Example 18.
1-17
Barometer and the Atmospheric
Pressure
The atmospheric pressure
is measured by a device
called a barometer; thus the
atmospheric pressure is
often referred to as the
barometric pressure.
0
( )
B B C C
C vapor
B atm C B
Hg
P Z P Z
P P
P P Z Z
gh
+ = +
= ~
= =
=
Barometer and the Atmospheric
Pressure (continued)
The standard atmospheric pressure is
the pressure produced by a column of
mercury 760 mm in height at 0
o
C. The
unit of mmHG is also called the torr in
honor of Evangelista Torricelli
(16081647).
The atmospheric pressure at a location
is simply the weight of the air above that
location per surface area. P
atm
changes
with elevation and weather conditions.
The length or the
cross-sectional area of
the tube has no effect
on the height of the
fluid column of a
barometer.
( )
kPa P kPa P
kPa P kPa P
Pa torr
kPa torr mmHg P
m m
Denver m m
atm
5 . 26 ; 05 . 54
4 . 83 ; 88 . 89
3 . 133 1
325 . 101 760
000 , 10 5000
: 1610 1000
= =
= =
=
= =
Problem Solving Technique
Step-by-step approach:
1. Problem Statement
2. Schematic
3. Assumptions
4. Physical Laws
5. Properties
6. Calculations
7. Reasoning, Verification, and
Discussion
The assumptions made while solving
an engineering problem must be
reasonable and justifiable.
Problem Solving Technique (continued)
A result with more
significant digits than that of
given data falsely implies
more accuracy.
When solving problems,
we will assume the
given information to be
accurate to at least 3
significant digits.
Therefore, if the length
of a pipe is given to be
40 m, we will assume it
to be 40.0 m in order to
justify using 3
significant digits in the
final results.
Examples
A pressure gage connected to a tank reads
500 kPa. The absolute pressure in the
tank is to be determined .
P
abs
P
atm
= 94 kPa
500 kPa
Examples
The vacuum gage connected to a tank
reads 15 kPa at a location where the
barometer reading is 750 mmHg.
Determine the absolute pressure of the
tank. The density of mercury is given to
be = 13,590 kg/m3.
P
abs
P
atm
= 750 mmHg
15 kPa
Examples
Examples
The air pressure in a tank is measured by
an oil manometer. For a given oil-level
difference between the two columns, the
absolute pressure in the tank is to be
determined. The density of oil is given to
be = 850 kg/m3.
AIR Patm = 98 kPa0.60 m
AIR
P
atm
= 98 kPa
0.60 m
Examples
730 mmHg
755 mmHg
h