COMPUTER NETWORKS

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By K.EUGINE RAJ AP/SCAD Engg College

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UNIT I PHYSICAL LAYER

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS Sharing or conveying

information is Communication.
Data

of called

communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics; Delivery Accuracy

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1. 2. 3.

Delivery:-The

deliver data destination.

Accuracy:-The

system must to the correct

system must deliver the data accurately. system must deliver data in a timely manner. Jitter refers to the variation 2/4/13 the packet arrival in

Timeliness:-The Jitter:-

Components of Data Communication

Message Sender Receiver Transmission medium 2/4/13

Data Representation
Information

today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.

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Data Flow
Communication

between two devices can be simplex, halfduplex, or full-duplex.

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Simplex:-

The communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit. Each station can transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. Both stations can transmit and receive data 2/4/13 simultaneously. The full-duplex

Half-Duplex:-

Full-Duplex:-

NETWORKS
A

network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links.

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Physical Topology
Mesh: In

a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.

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Star Topology:
In

a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub.

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Bus Topology:
A

bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.

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Ring Topology:
In

a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either side of it.

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Hybrid Topology :

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Network Models
Computer The

networks are created by different entities. two best-known standards are the OSI model and the Internet model.

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Categories of Networks
Local

Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building, or campus

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Wide Area Network

A

wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and video information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world.

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Metropolitan Area Networks

A

metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.

Global Area Networks

network that composed of different interconnected computer network which covers the geographical area is called GAN. GAN operates from 1.5Mbps to 2/4/13

OSI MODEL
It

was first introduced in the late 1970s. system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding 2/4/13 and designing a network

Open

The

OSI MODEL

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Peer-to-Peer Processes

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The

LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL Physical Layer

physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical medium

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Physical

characteristics of interfaces and medium. of bits. of bits. rate. configuration. topology.

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Representation Data

Synchronization Line

Physical

Transmission

mode.

Data Link Layer

It

makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).

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Responsibilities of the data link layer

Framing. Physical Flow Error

addressing.

control. control. control.

Access

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Network Layer
The

network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks. Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network.

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Responsibilities of the network layer

Logical

addressing.

-The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the addressing problem locally.
Routing.

-When independent networks or links are connected to create inter networks (network of networks) or a large network, the connecting 2/4/13 devices (called routers or switches)

Transport Layer
The

transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.

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Responsibilities of the transport layer

Service-point Segmentation Connection Flow Error

addressing. and reassembly.

control.

control. control.

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Session Layer
It

establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.

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Responsibilities of the Session layer

Dialog

control.

Synchronization.

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Presentation Layer
The

presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems.

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Responsibilities of the Presentation layer

Translation. Encryption. Compression.

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Application Layer
The

application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information services.

It

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Responsibilities of the Application layer

Network File

virtual terminal.

transfer, access, and management. Mail services. services.

Directory

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Comparison of Protocol TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The

TCPIIP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model.

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Physical and Data Link Layers physical and data link At the
layers, TCPIIP does not define any specific protocol.
It

supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCPIIP internetwork can be a local-area network or a wide-area network.

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Network Layer
At

the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol. in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.

IP,

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Transport Layer
Traditionally

the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP and UDP. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer. Transmission Control Protocol 2/4/13

The

The

Application Layer
The

application layer in TCPIIP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and application layers in the OSI model.

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ADDRESSING
Four

levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical (link) addresses, logical (IP) addresses, port addresses, and specific addresses

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Relationship of layers and addresses in TCPIIP

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Physical Addresses
The

physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN. is included in the frame used by the data link layer. is the lowest-level address.

It It

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Logical Addresses
Logical

addresses are necessary for universal communications that are independent of underlying physical networks. addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment where different networks can have different address formats.
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Physical

Port Addresses
The

IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to travel from a source to the destination host. arrival at the destination host is not the final objective of data communications on the Internet. port address in TCPIIP is 16 bits in length.
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However,

Specific Addresses
Some

applications have userfriendly addresses that are designed for that specific address. include the e-mail address and Universal Resource Locator

Examples

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TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Transmission

media are actually located below the physical layer and are directly controlled by the physical layer. could say that transmission media belong to layer zero. telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad categories: guided and unguided. media include twisted-pair 2/4/13

You In

Guided

Twisted-Pair Cable
A

twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together. of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.

One

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Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable The most common twisted-pair

cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded twistedpair

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Coaxial Cable
Coaxial

cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently. of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath.
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Instead

Fiber-Optic Cable
A

fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. internal Reflection.

Total

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Unguided

media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
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UNGUIDED MEDIA WIRELESS

This

Types of Wireless system

RADIO

waves

-Ground wave -Sky wave

Microwaves

-Cellular Communication -Ultra High Frequency Communication -Satellite Communication

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Radio Wave

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Microwave

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SWITCHING
A

network is a set of connected devices. Whenever we have multiple devices, we have the problem of how to connect them to make one-to-one communication possible. better solution is switching. switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches.
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A A

Figure shows a switched network

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Taxonomy of switched networks

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circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected by physical links, in which each link is divided into n channels.

CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS

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DATAGRAM NETWORKS
In

data communications, we need to send messages from one end system to another. the message is going to pass through a packet-switched network, it needs to be divided into packets of fixed or variable size. allocation is done on a first come, first-served basis. a switch receives a packet, 2/4/13 no matter what is the source or

If

The

When

In

this example, all four packets (or datagrams) belong to the same message, but may travel different paths to reach their destination.

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cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network. It has some characteristics of both.

VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS is a virtual-circuit network

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Data Transmission
Telephone

networks were originally created to provide voice communication. need to communicate digital data resulted in the invention of the dial-up modem. the advent of the Internet came the need for high-speed downloading and uploading. telephone companies added a 2/4/13

The

With

The

DIALUP MODEMS
Traditional

telephone lines can carry frequencies between 300 and 3300 Hz, giving them a bandwidth of 3000 Hz. general, we can say that the signal bandwidth must be smaller than the cable bandwidth. effective bandwidth of a telephone line being used for data transmission is 2400 Hz, 2/4/13

In

The

Modem A

stands demodulator

Modem

for

modulator/

modulator creates a bandpass analog signal from binary data. A demodulator recovers the binary data from the modulated signal.

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DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE

DSL DSL

is developed to provide higherspeed access to the Internet. technology is a set of technologies, each differing in the first letter (ADSL, VDSL, HDSL, and SDSL). set is often referred to as xDSL, where x can be replaced by A, V, H, or S.
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The

ADSL(ASYMMETRIC DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE)

ADSL,

like a 56K modem, provides higher speed (bit rate) in the downstream direction (from the Internet to the resident) than in the upstream direction (from the resident to the Internet). is an asymmetric communication technology designed for residential users; it is not suitable for businesses.
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ADSL

ADSL
Using One The

Existing Local Loops

interesting point is that ADSL uses the existing local loops. twisted-pair local loop is actually capable of handling bandwidths up to 1.1 MHz, but the filter installed at the end office of the telephone company where each local loop limits the bandwidth to 4 kHz (sufficient for voice communication). 2/4/13

ADSL
ADSL

Discrete

Multitone Technique

modem uses the standard called the discrete multitone technique (DMT) which combines QAM and FDM. system can decide on its bandwidth division. Typically, an available bandwidth of 1.104 MHz is divided into 256 channels. channel uses a bandwidth of 4.312 kHz, 2/4/13shown in Figure. as

Each

Each

ADSL

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ADSL System

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Telephone Company Site: DSLAM of an ADSL modem, Instead

a device called a digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM) is installed that functions similarly. addition, it packetizes the data to be sent to the Internet (ISP server).

In

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new version of ADSL technology called ADSL Lite or Universal ADSL or splitter less ADSL. technology allows an ASDL Lite modem to be plugged directly into a telephone jack and connected to the computer. splitting is done at the telephone company. Lite uses 256 DMT carriers with 8-bit modulation. 2/4/13

ADSL Lite

This

The

ADSL

The

HDSL

high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (HDSL) was designed as an alternative to the T-l line (1.544 Mbps). T-1line uses alternate mark inversion (AMI) encoding, which is very susceptible to attenuation at high frequencies. limits the length of a T-l line to 3200 ft (1 km). longer 2/4/13 distances, a repeater is

The

This For

It

SDSL

provides full-duplex symmetric communication supporting up to 768 kbps in each direction. which provides symmetric communication, can be considered an alternative to ADSL. provides communication, 2/4/13 asymmetric with a

SDSL,

ADSL

VDSL
The

very high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL), an alternative approach that is similar to ADSL, uses coaxial, fiber-optic, or twisted-pair cable for short distances. provides a range of bit rates (25 to 55 Mbps) for upstream communication at distances of 2/4/13 3000 to 10,000 ft. The downstream

It

Comparison of xDSL technologies

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CABLE TV NETWORKS
The

cable TV network started as a video service provider, but it has moved to the business of Internet access. this section, we discuss cable TV networks per se; in future we discuss how this network can be used to 2/4/13 provide high-speed access to

In

Traditional Cable Networks

Cable

TV started to distribute broadcast video signals to locations with poor or no reception in the late 1940s. was called community antenna TV (CATV) because an antenna at the top of a tall hill or building received the signals from the TV stations and distributed them, via coaxial 2/4/13

It

Communication

Traditional cable TV network

in the traditional cable TV network is unidirectional

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The

second generation of cable networks is called a hybrid fibercoaxial (HFC) network. network uses a combination of fiber-optic and coaxial cable. transmission medium from the cable TV office to a box, called the fiber node, is optical fiber; from the fiber node 2/4/13 through the neighborhood and

Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial (HFC) Network

The The

Hybridfiber-coaxial (HFC) network

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Hybridfiber-coaxial (HFC) network

The

regional cable head (RCH) normally serves up to 400,000 subscribers. RCHs feed the distribution hubs, each of which serves up to 40,000 subscribers. in an HFC cable TV network can be bidirectional. coaxial cable serves up to 2/4/13 1000 subscribers.

The

Communication Each

Cable

companies are now competing with telephone companies for the residential customer who wants high-speed data transfer. technology provides high-datarate connections for residential subscribers over the local loop. DSL uses the existing unshielded twisted-pair cable, which 2/4/13 is very susceptible to interference.

CABLE TV FOR DATA TRANSFER

DSL

However,

Division of coaxial cable band by CATV

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Downstream

Video Band

-The downstream video band occupies frequencies from 54 to 550 MHz. Since each TV channel occupies 6 MHz, this can accommodate more than 80 channels.
Downstream

Data Band

-The downstream data (from the Internet to the subscriber premises) occupies the upper band, from 550 to 750 MHz.

Upstream 2/4/13 Band Data

Cable modem (CM)

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UNIT 2 DATA LINK LAYER

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Data Link Control

The

two main functions of the data link layer are data link control and media access control. link control functions include framing, flow and error control, and software implemented protocols that provide smooth and reliable transmission of frames between 2/4/13

Data

FRAMING
Data

transmission in the physical layer means moving bits in the form of a signal from the source to the destination. physical layer provides bit synchronization to ensure that the sender and receiver use the same bit durations and timing. data link layer, on the other hand, needs to pack bits into frames, so that each frame is distinguishable 2/4/13 from another.

The

The

The

simple act of inserting a letter into an envelope which serves as the delimiter. envelope defines the sender and receiver addresses like postal system. in the data link layer separates a message from one source to a destination, or from other messages to other destinations,. destination 2/4/13 address defines

Each

Framing

The

Frames

Framing size
can variable size.

be

of

fixed

or

Fixed-Size In

Framing

fixed-size framing, there is no need for defining the boundaries of the frames; the size itself can be used as a delimiter. Framing need a way to define the end of 2/4/13 frame and the the

Variable-Size We

Variable size framing

Two 1. 2.

approaches were used.

Character-Oriented Protocols Bit-oriented approach

Character-Oriented Protocols
.Data

to be carried are 8-bit characters from a coding system such as ASCII. header, which normally carries the source and destination addresses and other control 2/4/13 information, and the trailer, which

.The

Character-Oriented Protocols one frame from the To separate

next, an 8-bit flag is added.

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Character-oriented

framing was popular when only text was exchanged by the data link layers. we send other types of information such as graphs, audio, and video. pattern used for the flag could also be part of the information. fix this problem, a byte-stuffing strategy was added to characteroriented framing. byte
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If

The To

In

stuffing

(or

character

Bit-Oriented Protocols
It

uses a special 8-bit pattern flag 01111110 as the delimiter to define the beginning and the end of the frame. stuffing of single bit (instead of I byte) to prevent the pattern from looking like a flag is used here.
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FLOW AND ERROR CONTROL

Data

communication requires at least two devices working together, one to send and the other to receive. system needs a coordination for an intelligible exchange to occur. most important responsibilities of the data link layer are flow control and error 2/4/13

Even

The

Flow Control
Flow

control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent through the data link layer. control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data that the sender can send before waiting for acknowledgment.
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Flow

Error Control
Error

control is both error detection and error correction. control in the data link layer is based on automatic repeat request, which is the retransmission of data.
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Error

The

PROTOCOLS

data link layer can combine framing, flow control, and error control to achieve the delivery of data from one node to another. the protocols we discuss are unidirectional. a real-life network, the data link protocols are implemented as bidirectional. these protocols the flow and error control information such as ACKs and 2/4/13 NAKs is included in the data frames

All In

In

NOISELESS CHANNELS
Assume We

an ideal channel in which no frames are lost. introduce two protocols for this type of channel. first is a protocol that does not use flow control; the second is the one that does.
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The

It it

Simplest Protocol

has no flow or error control.

is a unidirectional protocol.

Design

-As there is no need for flow control the data link layer at the sender site gets data from its network layer, makes a frame out of the data, and sends it. -The data link layer at the receiver site receives a frame from its physical 2/4/13 layer, extracts data from the frame,

Design

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Flow diagram

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Stop-and-Wait Protocol
If

data receiver can be must be

frames arrive at the site faster than they processed, the frames stored until their use.

Normally,

the receiver does not have enough storage space, especially if it is receiving data from many sources. may result in either the discarding2/4/13 frames or denial of of

This

Stop-and-Wait Protocol
To

prevent the receiver from becoming overwhelmed with frames, we somehow need to tell the sender to slow down. must be feedback from the receiver to the sender. Protocol because the sender sends one frame, stops until it receives confirmation from the receiver 2/4/13

There

Stop-and-Wait

Design

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Flow diagram

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NOISY CHANNELS
Although

the Stop-and-Wait Protocol gives us an idea of how to add flow control to its predecessor, noiseless channels are nonexistent. can ignore the error (as we sometimes do), or we need to add error control to our protocols. discuss three protocols in this section that use error control. 2/4/13

We

We

Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request

Stop-and-Wait

Automatic Repeat Request (Stop-and Wait ARQ), adds a simple error control mechanism to the Stop-and-Wait Protocol.

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Design

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2/4/13

Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request

To

improve the efficiency of transmission (filling the pipe), multiple frames must be in transition while waiting for acknowledgment. this protocol we can send several frames before receiving acknowledgments. from a sending station are numbered sequentially. 2/4/13

In

Frames

Design

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Flow diagram

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Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request Go-Back-N ARQ simplifies

process at the receiver site.
The

the

receiver keeps track of only one variable, and there is no need to buffer out-of-order frames. a noisy link a frame has a higher probability of damage, which means the resending of multiple frames. 2/4/13

In

Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request N frames Instead of sending

when just one frame is damaged; only the damaged frame is resent.
This

mechanism is Selective Repeat ARQ.

called

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Design

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Flow diagram

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Piggybacking
The

three protocols we discussed in this section are all unidirectional: although control information such as ACK and NAK frames can travel in the other direction. real life, data frames are normally flowing in both directions. control information flow in both directions. needs to

In

So A

technique called piggybacking is 2/4/13 used to improve the efficiency of the

Design of piggybacking in Go-Back-NARQ

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HDLC
High-level

Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented protocol for communication over point-to-point and multipoint links. implements the ARQ mechanisms. provides two common transfer modes that can be used in different configurations. response mode (NRM) and Asynchronous balanced mode 2/4/13 (ABM).

It

HDLC

Normal

Normal Response Mode

In

normal response mode (NRM), the station configuration is unbalanced. have on primary station and multiple secondary stations. primary station can send commands; a secondary station can only respond.
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We A

Normal Response Mode

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In

Asynchronous Balanced Mode

asynchronous balanced mode (ABM), the configuration is balanced. The link is point-topoint, and each station can function as a primary and a secondary .

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Frames

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Flag

field. The flag field is an 8-bit sequence with the bit pattern 01111110 that identifies both the beginning and the end of a frame and serves as a synchronization. field. The second field of an HDLC frame contains the address of the secondary station. station contains to address & secondary creates a from address.
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Address

Primary

Control

field. The control field is a 1- or 2-byte segment of the frame used for flow and error control. field. The information field contains the user's data from the network layer or management information. field. The frame check sequence (FCS) is the HDLC error detection field. It can contain either a 2- or 4-byte ITU-T CRC.
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Information

FCS

Control Field

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I-frames

are designed to carry user data from the network layer. In addition, they can include flow and error control information frames are used for flow and error control whenever piggybacking is either impossible or inappropriate. do not have information fields. Unnumbered frames are used to exchange 2/4/13 session management

Supervisory

S-frames

The The

MULTIPLE ACCESS
data sublayers. link layer

has

two

upper sublayer is responsible for data link control, and the lower sublayer is responsible for resolving access to the shared media.

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The

upper sublayer that is responsible for flow and error control is called the logical link control (LLC) layer; the lower sublayer that is mostly responsible for multiple access resolution is called the media access control (MAC) layer.

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MULTIPLE ACCESS PROTOCOL

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The It

RANDOM ACCESS

access to the medium from many entry is called contention. is controlled with a contention protocol. random access method each station has the right to the medium without being controlled by any other station. more than one station tries to send, there is an access conflict(collision and distortion). 2/4/13

In

If

ALOHA
ALOHA,

the earliest random access method, was developed at the University of Hawaii in early 1970. was designed for a radio (wireless) LAN, but it can be used on any shared medium.

It

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Pure ALOHA
The

original ALOHA protocol is called pure ALOHA. is a simple, but elegant protocol. idea is that each station sends a frame whenever it has a frame to send.

This The

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Pure ALOHA

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Some

of these frames collide because multiple frames are in contention for the shared channel. need to resend the frames that have been destroyed during transmission. pure ALOHA protocol relies on acknowledgments from the receiver. the acknowledgment does arrive after a time-out period, station assumes that the frame 2/4/13 been destroyed and resends not the has the

We

The

If

A If

collision involves two or more stations. all these stations try to resend their frames after the time-out, the frames will collide again. ALOHA has a second method to prevent congesting the channel with retransmitted frames. a maximum number of retransmission attempts Kmax' a station must give up and try later.
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Pure

After

2/4/13

Slotted ALOHA
Pure This

ALOHA has a vulnerable time of 2 x Tfr. is so because there is no rule that defines when the station can send. station may send soon after another station has started or soon before another station has finished. ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA. 2/4/13

Slotted

Slotted ALOHA

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

To

minimize the chance of collision and, therefore, increase the performance, the CSMA method was developed. chance of collision can be reduced if a station senses the medium before trying to use it. sense multiple access (CSMA) requires that each station first listen to the medium (or check the state 2/4/13 the medium) before of

The

Carrier

Persistence Methods
What What is

should a station do if the channel is busy? should a station do if the channel idle? methods have been devised to answer these questions: I-persistent method non-persistent method and
2/4/13 p-persistent method.

Three the the the

2/4/13

I-Persistent
The In

I-persistent method simple and straightforward.

is

this method, after the station finds the line idle, it sends its frame immediately.

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Nonpersistent
In

the nonpersistent method, a station that has a frame to send senses the line. the line is immediately. idle, it sends

If If

the line is not idle, it waits a random amount of time and then senses the line again.
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p-Persistent
The

p-persistent method is used if the channel has time slots with a slot duration equal to or greater than the maximum propagation time. p-persistent approach combines the advantages of the other two strategies. reduces the chance of collision and improves efficiency. 2/4/13

The

It

Flow diagram

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

The

CSMA method does not specify the procedure following a collision. sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) augments the algorithm to handle the collision. this method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to see if the transmission was 2/4/13 successful.

Carrier

In

Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD

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Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance behind CSMA/CD The basic idea (CSMA/CA)
is that a station needs to be able to receive while transmitting to detect a collision.
When

there is no collision, the station receives one signal: its own signal. there is a collision, the station receives two signals: its 2/4/13 own signal and the signal

When

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision The signal from the second Avoidance (CSMA/CA) station needs to add a
significant amount of energy to the one created by the first station.
In

a wired network, the received signal has almost the same energy as the sent signal because either the length of the cable is 2/4/13 short or there are

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) This means that in a collision, the
detected energy almost doubles.
However,

in a wireless network, much of the sent energy is lost in transmission. received signal has very little energy. Therefore, a collision may add only 5 to 10 percent additional energy.
2/4/13 is not useful for effective

The

This

Timing in CSMA/CA

2/4/13

Inter

frame Space (IFS)

-First, collisions are avoided by deferring transmission even if the channel is found idle.
Contention

Window

-The contention window is an amount of time divided into slots. -A station that is ready to send chooses a random number of slots as its wait time.
2/4/13 -The number of slots in the window

CONTROLLED ACCESS
In

controlled access, the stations consult one another to find which station has the right to send. station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations. discuss three popular controlled-access methods.
2/4/13

We

Reservation
In

the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending data. is divided into intervals. each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data frames sent in that interval. there are N stations in the system, there are exactly N reservation mini slots in the reservation frame.
2/4/13 mini slot belongs to a station.

Time In

If

Each

Reservation access method

2/4/13

Polling

works with topologies in which one device is designated as a primary station and the other devices are secondary stations. data exchanges must be made through the primary device even when the ultimate destination is a secondary device.
2/4/13

Polling

All

Select and poll functions in polling access method

2/4/13

Token Passing
In

the token-passing method, the stations in a network are organized in a logical ring. In other words, for each station, there is a predecessor and a successor. predecessor is the station which is logically before the station in the ring; the successor is the station which is 2/4/13

The

Token Passing
The

current station is the one that is accessing the channel now. right to this access has been passed from the predecessor to the current station. right will be passed to the successor when the current 2/4/13 station has no more data to

The

The

In

Logical Ring

a token-passing network, stations do not have to be physically connected in a ring; the ring can be a logical one.

2/4/13

CHANNELIZATION
Channelization

relates

to

bandwidth of a link.
Three

channelization protocols are:

FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA.

2/4/13

Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

In

frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands.

2/4/13

2/4/13

Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In

time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time. station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data. station transmits its data in is assigned time slot. 2/4/13

Each

Each

2/4/13

Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Code-division

multiple access (CDMA) was conceived several decades ago. advances in electronic technology have finally made its implementation possible. differs from FDMA because only one channel occupies the entire bandwidth of the link. differs 2/4/13 TDMA because all from

Recent

CDMA

It

LAN

Wired LANs: Ethernet

can be used as an isolated network to connect computers in an organization for the sole purpose of sharing resources, most LANs today are also linked to a wide area network (WAN) or the Internet. LAN market has seen several technologies such as Ethernet, Token Ring, Token Bus, 2/4/13 FDDI, and ATM LAN.

The

IEEE STANDARDS
In

1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called Project 802, to set standards to enable intercommunication among equipment from a variety of manufacturers. 802 does not seek to replace any part of the OSI or the Internet model. it is a way of specifying functions of the physical layer and 2/4/13

Project

Instead,

IEEE standard for LAN

2/4/13

IEEE standard for LAN

The

IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sublayers: logical link control (LLC) and media access control (MAC). has also created several physical layer standards for different LAN protocols.

IEEE

2/4/13

STANDARD ETHERNET

2/4/13

ETHERNET
The

original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). then, it has gone through four generations: Standard Ethernet (lot Mbps), Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (l Gbps), and Ten-Gigabit Ethernet (l0 Gbps).
2/4/13

Since

MAC Sublayer
In

Standard Ethernet, the MAC sublayer governs the operation of the access method. also frames data received from the upper layer and passes them to the physical layer.

It

2/4/13

The

Ethernet frame contains seven fields: preamble, SFD, DA, SA, length or type of protocol data unit (PDU), upper-layer data, and the CRC. does not provide any mechanism for acknowledging received frames, making it what is known as an unreliable medium.

Frame Format

Ethernet

2/4/13

802.3 MACframe

2/4/13

Preamble.

The first field of the 802.3 frame contains 7 bytes (56 bits) of alternating 0s and 1s that alerts the receiving system to the coming frame and enables it to synchronize its input timing. preamble is actually added at the physical layer and is not (formally) part of the frame.
2/4/13

The

Start

frame delimiter (SFD). The second field (l byte: 10101011) signals the beginning of the frame. SFD warns the station or stations that this is the last chance for synchronization.

The

2/4/13

Destination

address (DA). The DA field is 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the destination station or stations to receive the packet. address (SA). The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the sender of the packet.
2/4/13

Source

Length

or type. This field is defined as a type field or length field. IEEE standard used it as the length field to define the number of bytes in the data field.

The

2/4/13

Data.

This field carries data encapsulated from the upperlayer protocols. is a minimum of 46 and a maximum of 1500 bytes, as we will see later. The last field contains error detection information, in this case a CRC-32.
2/4/13

It

CRC.

Ethernet

Frame Length

has imposed restrictions on both the minimum and maximum lengths of a frame, as shown in Figure.

2/4/13

Addressing
Each

station on an Ethernet network (such as a PC, workstation, or printer) has its own network interface card (NIC). NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with a 6-byte physical address.

The

2/4/13

Unicast and multicast addresses defines the The first byte

address.
If

type of

the bit is 0, the address is unicast; otherwise, it is multicast.

2/4/13

unicast destination address defines only one recipient; the relationship between the sender and the receiver is one-to-one. multicast destination address defines a group of addresses; the relationship between the sender and the receivers is one-to-many. broadcast address is a special case of the multicast address; the recipients are all the stations on the LAN. broadcast destination address is
2/4/13

The

Access Method: CSMA/CD

Standard Slot

Ethernet persistent CSMA/CD.

uses

I-

Time In an Ethernet network, the round-trip time required for a frame to travel from one end of a maximumlength network to the other plus the time needed to send the jam sequence is called the slot time. time2/4/13 =round-trip time +

Slot

Physical Layer
The

Standard Ethernet defines several physical layer implementations; four of the most common, are shown in Figure. Categories of Standard Ethernet

2/4/13

10Base5: Thick Ethernet

The

first implementation is called 10BaseS, thick Ethernet, or Thicknet. nickname derives from the size of the cable, which is roughly the size of a garden hose and too stiff to bend with your hands. was the first Ethernet specification to use a bus topology 2/4/13 with an external

The

10Base5

10Base5 implementation

2/4/13

10Base2: Thin Ethernet

The

second implementation is called 10Base2, thin Ethernet, or Cheapernet. also uses a bus topology, but the cable is much thinner and more flexible. cable can be bent to pass very close to the stations. this case, the transceiver is normally part of the network interface 2/4/13 card (NIC), which is

10Base2

The In

10Base2 implementation

2/4/13

10Base-T: Twisted-Pair Ethernet

The

third implementation is called 10Base-T or twistedpair Ethernet. uses a physical star topology.

10Base-T The

stations are connected to a hub via two pairs of twisted cable.

2/4/13

10Base-T implementation

2/4/13

10Base-F: Fiber Ethernet

Although

there are several types of optical fiber 10-Mbps Ethernet, the most common is called 10Base-F. uses a star topology to connect stations to a hub. stations are connected to the hub using two fiber-optic cables.
2/4/13

l0Base-F The

10Base-F implementation

2/4/13

2/4/13

CHANGES IN THE STANDARD ETHERNET

The

10-Mbps Standard Ethernet has gone through several changes before moving to the higher data rates. changes actually opened the road to the evolution of the Ethernet to
2/4/13

These

Raising the Bandwidth

In

an un bridged Ethernet network, the total capacity (10 Mbps) is shared among all stations with a frame to send; the stations share the bandwidth of the network. Sharing bandwidth

2/4/13

A network with and without a bridge

2/4/13

Separating Collision Domains

The

advantage of a bridge is separation of the collision domain. shows the collision domains for an unbridged and a bridged network.

Figure

2/4/13

2/4/13

Switched Ethernet
The

idea of a bridged LAN can be extended to a switched LAN. of having two to four networks, not have N networks, where N is the number of stations on the LAN?

Instead Why

2/4/13

Switched Ethernet

2/4/13

Full-Duplex Ethernet
One

of the limitations of 10Base5 and lOBase2 is that communication is half-duplex (l0Base-T is always full-duplex). next step in the evolution was to move from switched Ethernet to full-duplex switched Ethernet. full-duplex mode increases the capacity of each domain from 2/4/13

The

The

Full-duplex switched Ethernet

2/4/13

No Need for CSMA/CD

In

full-duplex switched Ethernet, there is no need for the CSMA/CD method. a full duplex switched Ethernet, each station is connected to the switch via two separate links.

In

2/4/13

FAST ETHERNET
Fast

Ethernet was designed to compete with LAN protocols such as FDDI or Fiber Channel. created Fast Ethernet under the name 802.3u. Ethernet is backwardcompatible with Standard Ethernet, but it can transmit data 10 times faster at a rate of 100 Mbps. 2/4/13

IEEE Fast

Goals of Fast Ethernet

1. Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps. 2. Make it compatible Standard Ethernet. with

3. Keep the same 48-bit address. 4. Keep the same frame format. 5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
2/4/13

MAC Sublayer
A

main consideration in the evolution of Ethernet from 10 to 100 Mbps was to keep the MAC sublayer untouched. the bus topologies dropped and only the topology was used. was star

But

For

the star topology, there are two choices, as we saw before: half duplex and full duplex. 2/4/13

In

the half-duplex approach, the stations are connected via a hub; in the full-duplex approach, the connection is made via a switch with buffers at each port. access method is the same (CSMA/CD) for the half-duplex approach; for full duplex Fast Ethernet, there is no need for CSMA/CD.
2/4/13

The

Autonegotiation
A

new feature added to Fast Ethernet is called autonegotiation. allows a station or a hub a range of capabilities. allow incompatible devices to connect to one another. allow one device to have multiple capabilities. allow a station to check a hub's capabilities.
2/4/13

It

To To To

Physical Layer
The

physical layer in Fast Ethernet is more complicated than the one in Standard Ethernet.

2/4/13

Topology
Fast

Ethernet is designed to connect two or more stations together. there are only two stations, they can be connected point-topoint. or more stations need to be connected in a star topology with a hub or a switch at the center. 2/4/13

If

Three

2/4/13

Implementation

2/4/13

Encoding
Manchester

encoding needs a 200-Mbaud bandwidth for a data rate of 100 Mbps. an alternative encoding/decoding scheme has introduced.

So

2/4/13

Encoding for Fast Ethernet implementation

2/4/13

2/4/13

2/4/13

GIGABIT ETHERNET
The

need for an even higher data rate resulted in the design of the Gigabit Ethernet protocol (1000 Mbps). IEEE committee calls the Standard 802.3z.

The

2/4/13

Goals of the Gigabit Ethernet data rate to 1 Gbps. 1. Upgrade the

2. Make it compatible with Standard or Fast Ethernet. 3. Use the same 48-bit address. 4. Use the same frame format. 5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths. 6. To support autonegotiation defined in Fast Ethernet.
2/4/13

as