Introduction to NODAL analysis

Learning Objectives

Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

Single phase Two phase Single phase Two phase

Vertical Lift Performance

Flow Through Chokes Matching Inflow and Tubing Performances

Introduction

Production by natural flow Need for better understanding of various concepts which define well performance. Pressure loss occurs in:

the reservoir the bottom hole completion the tubing or casing the wellhead the flowline the flowline choke pressure losses in the separator and export pipeline to storage
3

Introduction

Production is generally limited by the pressure in the reservoir and difficult to do something about it. A major task is to optimise the design to maximise oil and gas recovery.

Production Performance Production performance involves matching up the following three aspects:

Inflow performance of formation fluid flow from formation to the wellbore. Vertical lift performance as the fluids flow up the tubing to surface. Choke or bean performance as the fluids flow through the restriction at surface.

Fluid Flow Through Porous Media

The ability to determine the productivity of a reservoir and the optimum strategy to maximise the recovery relies on an understanding of the flow characteristics of the reservoir and the fluid it contains. The interaction between the fluid (and its properties) and the rock (and its properties) Comparison with flow through pipes.

Multiple fluids Surface tension Capillary forces

Fluid Flow Through Porous Media

The nature of the fluid flow Time taken for the pressure change in the reservoir Fluid to migrate from one location to another For any pressure changes in the reservoir, it might take days, even years to manifest themselves in other parts of the reservoir. Therefore flow regime would not be steady state Darcys law could not be applied Time dependent variables should be examined
7

Two Phase Flow, Vogels Equation

A simplified solution was offered by Vogel. He simulated the PVT properties and cumulative production from different wells on computer to produce many IPR curves. These were then normalised for pressure and producing rate. The curves produced represent many different depletion drive reservoir. A single curve can be fitted to the data with the following equation.

qo qo max

Pwf Pwf 2 = 1 0.2( ) 0.8( ) Pr Pr

This equation has been found to be a good representation of many reservoirs and is widely used in the prediction of IPR curves for 2-phase flow. Also, it appears to work for water cuts of up to 50%.

Vogels Equation, Example-1

Find qomax and qo for Pwf = 800 psi, given the follwoing data : Pr = 2400 psi qo = 100 b/d Pwf = 1800 psi Pwf P ) 0.8( wf )2 Pr Pr For P = 800 psi 1 0.2( qo max = qo = 100 = 250 b/d 1800 1800 2 1 0.2( ) 0.8( ) 2400 2400

P P 800 800 2 qo = qo max 1 0.2( wf ) 0.8( wf )2 = 250 1 0.2( ) 0.8( ) = 211 b/d 2400 2400 Pr Pr

Vogels Equation, Example, Cont.

If other values of Pwf are chosen, sufficient qos can be generated to plot the curve, e.g.: Pwf 800 1200 1600 2000 qo 211 175 128 69
Pwf IPR
3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 100

qo

200

300

10

Vogels Equation, Combined Single Phase Liquid and 2-Phase

In this case there is a single Pr phase liquid which exists above the bubble point. Below the bubble point the system becomes 2-phase. P The figure opposite shows the IPR, which is a combined linear-Vogel plot (i.e., straight line above Pb and Vogel below Pb with Pb substituted for Pr).
Pwf

Straight line above Pb

Vogel below Pb

qb

qmax

11

Vogels Equation, Example-2

Given the follwoing data : P r = 3000 psia h = 60 ft S=0 Pb = 2000 psia re = 2000 ft Bo = 1.2 k = 30 md rw = 0.4 ft

o = 0.68 cp

7.08 10 3 ko h( Pr Pwfs ) qo = re 3 o B o (ln ) rw 4 Find : i) q b ii ) q max , assuming Vogel IPR below Pb iii) q o for Pwf of : a. 2500 psia b. 1000 psia
12

Example-2, Solution
i) There is no given PI above the bubble point, therefore radial inflow equation is used : 7.08 10 3 k o h( Pr Pwfs ) qo = = r 3 o B o (ln e ) rw 4 7.08 10 3 30 60 (3000 2000) = 2010 b/d 2000 3 0.68 1.2 (ln + 0) 0.4 4 ii) using Vogel beyond Pb Pwf Pwf 2 qo = qo max 1 0.2( ) 0.8( ) Pr Pr
13

Example-2, Solution
Re membering that the PI is the slope of the IPR, if Vogel' s equation is differenti ated it gives the PI. 0.2 1.6Pwf 0.2 1.6Pwf dqo - dqo = qo max = qo max + 2 2 dPwf dPwf Pr Pr Pr Pr and at Pwf = Pb PI = qo max ( Vogel ) = PI 0.2 1.6Pb 1 .8 - dqo = qo max + = qo max dPwf Pb Pb2 Pb

Pb 1 .8

2010 therefore PI at Pb = = 2.01 b/d/psi 3000 2000

14

Example-2, Solution
qo max(vogel ) = PI qmax( total ) Pb 2000 = 2.01 = 2233 b/d 1.8 1.8 = qb + qmax(vogel ) = 2010 + 2233 = 4243 b/d

iii) a. P = 2500psi, i.e. > Pb , wf q = PI(Pr P ) = 2.01 (3000 2500) = 1005 b/d wf b. P = 1000psi, i.e. < Pb wf 1000 1000 2 qo(Vogel) = qmax( Vogel ) 1 0.2( ) 0.8( ) = 1563 b/d 2000 2000 qo(total) = qb + qo(Vogel) = 2010 + 1563 = 3573 b/d
15

Vogels Equation, Problems-1&2

Problem - 1 Find qomax and plot IPR for the following data : Pr = 1600 psig qo = 150 b/d Pb = 1600 psig Pwf = 1000 psig

__________ __________ __________ _________ Problem - 2 Using the following data, find qb , qmax(total) , and q for Pwf = 2500 psi. Pr = 4200 psi Pb = 3000 psi PI = 2 b/d/psi Plot the IPR

16

Two Phase Flow: Effect of GOR

17

Non Darcy Flow

Darcys law only applies to laminar flow situations, a valid assumption for the majority of oil wells. For gas wells and some very high flowrate (light crude) oil wells, the volumetric expansion as fluid approaches the wellbore is very high and this can result in turbulent flow. In such cases, a modified form of the Darcy equation, known as the Forchheimer equation, is used:
dP U = + U2 dr K The non-Darcy component due to turbulent flow is normally handled as an additional pressure loss PND
18

Productivity Index (PI)

Productivity index is a measure of the capability of a reservoir to deliver fluids to the bottom of a wellbore. It relates the surface production rate and the pressure drop across the reservoir, known as the drawdown.

To take into account the effect of the thickness of producing interval and comparison of various wells, the Specific Productivity Index is defined as:

19

PI For SS Incompressible Flow

(PI)SS qs 7.082 10 3 Kh =JSS = = re Pe Pw B ln( ) rw

PI is constant if , B and K remain constant. Plot of Pw versus qs should be a straight line of slope 1/J, with an intercept on the ordinate axis of Pe. PI for Semi-Steady State Incompressible Flow

20

Oil Wells Productivity Index

The Productivity Index (PI) is the ratio of

production to the pressure draw down at the midpoint of the production interval
Qo PI = Pwi Pwf Pwf = flowing presure Pwi = static presure Qo = oil flow rate

The productivity index is a measure of the oil well potential or ability to produce and is a commonly measured well property. PI is expressed either in stock tank barrel per day per psi or in stock tank cubic metres per day per kPa.
21

Practical determination of PI
The static pressure (Pwi) is measured by:

prior to open a new well (after clean up) after sufficient shut in period (existing wells)

In both cases a subsurface pressure gauge is run into the well The flowing bottom hole pressure (Pwf) is recorded

after the well has flowed at a stabilised rate for a sufficient period (new wells) prior to shut in for the existing wells
22

Decline of PI at High Flow Rates

In most wells the productivity index remains constant over a wide range of variation in flow rate. Therefore, the oil flow rate is Qo directly proportional to bottom hole pressure draw down. PI However, at high flow rate the linearity fails and the productivity index declines, which could be due to: 1- turbulence at high volumetric flow rates 2- decrease in relative permeability due to the presence of free gas caused by the drop in pressure at the well bore 3- the increased in oil viscosity with pressure drop below bubble point

PI

Flow rate

Drawdown

23

Example 1
A well has a shut in bottom hole pressure of 2300 psia and produces oil at 215 barrels/day under a draw down of 500 psi. The well produces from a formation of 36 feet net productive thickness. What is productivity index, and specific productivity index? Specific productivity index Productivity Index is a function of productive thickness (in fact, the length of perforation interval). In order to compare the wells with each other, the specific productivity index (PI)s is defined as:

PI Qo (PI)s = = h h(Pwi Pwf ) h = length of the pay zone (performat ions)

24

Tubing Performance

The pressure loss in the tubing can be a significant proportion of the total pressure loss. However its calculation is complicated by the number of phases which may exist in the tubing. It is possible to derive a mathematical expression which describes fluid flow in a pipe by applying the principle of conservation of energy. The principle of the conservation of energy equates the energy of fluid entering in and exiting from a control volume.
25

Fundamental Derivation of Pipe Flow Equation

The principle of the conservation of energy equates the energy of fluid entering and exiting from a control volume.

26

Flow Regimes in Vertical 2-Phase Flow

As the pressure on a crude oil containing gas in solution is steadily reduced, free gas is evolved and as a consequence, the liquid volume decreases. This phenomenon affects the relative volumes of free gas and oil present at each point in the tubing of a flowing well. If the bottom hole pressure in a well is above the bubble point of the crude oil, single phase liquid is present in the lower part of the tubing.

27

Flow Regimes in Vertical 2-Phase Flow, Cont.

As the liquid moves up the tubing, the pressure drops and gas bubbles begin to form. This flow regime where gas bubbles are dispersed in a continuous liquid medium is known as bubble flow. As the fluid moves further up the tubing, the gas bubbles grow and become more numerous. The larger bubbles slip upward at a higher velocity than the smaller ones, because of the buoyancy effect.

Mist Flow Annular Flow Slug or Plug Flow Bubble Flow Single Phase Liquid Flow
28

Flow Regimes in Vertical 2-Phase Flow, Cont.

A stage is reached where these large bubbles extend across almost the entire diameter of the tubing. As a result, slugs of oil containing small bubbles are separated from each other by gas pockets that occupy the entire tubing cross section except for a film of oil moving relatively slowly along the tubing wall. This is Slug or Plug Flow. Still higher in the tubing, the gas pockets may have grown and expanded to such as extent that they are able to break through the more viscous oil slug. Gas forms a continuous phase near the centre of the tubing carrying droplets of the oil up with it. Along the walls of the tubing there is an upward moving oil film. This is Annular Flow.

Mist Flow Annular Flow Slug or Plug Flow Bubble Flow Single Phase Liquid Flow
29

Flow Regimes in Vertical 2-Phase Flow, Cont.

Continued decrease in pressure with resultant increase in gas volume results in a thinner and thinner oil film, until finally the film disappears and the flow regime becomes a continuous gas phase in which oil droplets are carried along with the gas, i.e., Mist Flow. Not all these flow regimes will occur simultaneously in a single tubing string, but frequently 2 or possibly 3 may be present. In addition to flow regimes, the viscosity of oil and gas and their variation with pressure and temperature, PVT characteristics, flowing bottom hole pressure (BHP), and tubing head pressure (THP) affect the pressure gradient.

Mist Flow Annular Flow

Slug or Plug Flow Bubble Flow Single Phase Liquid Flow

30

Flow Regimes in Vertical 2-Phase Flow, Cont.

These flow patterns have been observed by a number of investigators who have conducted experiments with air-water mixtures in visual flow columns. The conventional manner of depicting the experimental data from these observations is to correlate the liquid and gas velocity parameters against the physical description of the flow pattern observed. Such presentations of data are referred to as flow pattern maps. The map is a log-log plot of the superficial velocities of the gas and liquid phases.

31

Practical Application of Multiphase Flow

Multiphase flow correlations could be used for: Predict tubing head pressure (THP) at various rates Predict flowing bottom hole pressure (BHP) at various rates Determine the PI of wells Select correct tubing sizes Predict maximum flow rates Predict when a well will die and hence time for artificial lift Design artificial lift applications The important variables are: tubing diameter, flowrate, gas liquid ratio (GLR), viscosity, etc.

32

Liquid-Liquid Flow

The case of liquid-liquid flow in production wells may occur in low GOR wells which produce water. Since both phases are only slightly compressible or incompressible, it would be expected that the physical nature of the flow of an oil-water mixture to surface would not be as dramatically different from single phase liquid flow as the oil-gas system. If oil and water enter the wellbore from the reservoir and flow up the tubing to surface, the physical distribution of the phases will depend upon their relative volumetric properties, ie, one phase will be continuous and the other dispersed.
33

Liquid-Liquid Flow

Unlike the gas there will be little relative volumetric expansion between the two phases. Thus, the physical distribution will be more dependent on the WOR and the flow velocity.

34

Pressure Transverse or Gradient Curves

A, B, C=Different Tubing Head Pressures

35

Pressure Transverse or Gradient Curves

By shifting the curves downwards, he found that, for a constant GLR, flowrate and tubing size, the curves overlapped Then, a single curve could be utilised to represent flow in the tubing under assumed conditions. The impact was in effect to extend the depth of the well by a length which, would dissipate the tubing head pressure.

A, B, C=Different Tubing Head Pressures

36

Gradient Curves
Gilbert was then able to collect all the curves for a constant tubing size and flowrate on one graph, resulting in a series of gradient curves which would accommodate a variety of GLRs. He then prepared a series of gradient curves at constant liquid production rate and tubing size.
37

Gradient Curves

38

Positive or Fixed Choke

This normally consists of two parts:

A choke which consists of a machined housing into which the orifice capability or "bean" is installed. A "bean" which consists of a short length 1-6", of thick walled tube with a smooth, machined bore of specified size.

39

Valve Seat with Adjustable Valve Stem

In this design, the orifice consists of a valve seat into which a valve stem can be inserted and retracted, thus adjusting the orifice size. The movement of the valve stem can either be manual or automatic using an hydraulic or electrohydraulic controller.

40

Choke Flow Characteristics

Chokes normally operate in multiphase systems. Single phase can occur in dry gas wells.

41

Critical Flow through Chokes

R=P2/P1 The value of R at the point where the plateau production rate is achieved is termed the critical pressure ratio Rc.

42

Critical Flow through Chokes

Critical flow behaviour is only exhibited by highly compressible fluid such as gases and gas/liquid mixtures. For gas, which is a highly compressible fluid, the critical downstream pressure Pc is achieved when velocity through the vena contracta equals the sonic velocity this means that a disturbance in pressure or flow downstream of the choke must travel at greater than the speed of sound to influence upstream flow conditions. In general, critical flow conditions will exist when Rc=<0.5

43

Multiphase Flow through a Choke

A number of researchers have published studies on multiphase flow through chokes. Some of the studies relate to correlation of field measurements.
PTH = tubing head flowing pressure in psia Cd = constant R =gas liquid ratio (MSCF/bbl) Q =oil flowrate (STB/d) S =bean size in 1/64" Gilbert (435 is correct)

Achong (R in SCF/bbl)
44

Matching the Inflow and Tubing Performance

Method 1 - Reservoir and tubing pressure loss convergence in predicting bottomhole flowing pressure

45

Matching the Inflow and Tubing Performance

46

47