AC CIRCUITS Part 1

AC CIRCUITS (1/2)
Direct current (DC) circuits involve current flowing in one direction. In alternating current (AC) circuits, instead of a constant voltage supplied by a battery, the voltage oscillates in a sine wave pattern as shown in the figure below.

Alternating Current (green curve). The horizontal axis measures time; the vertical, current or voltage.

AC CIRCUITS (2/2)
AC is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and residences. In certain applications, different waveforms are used, such as triangular or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of alternating current.

SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING WAVEFORM (1/20)

Sinusoidal alternating waveform is the time-varying voltage that is commercially available in large quantities and is commonly called the ac voltage. Each waveform in the figure below is an alternating waveform available from commercial supplies. The term alternating indicates only that the waveform alternates between two prescribed levels in a set time sequence. AC waveforms can be termed as sinusoidal, square-wave, or triangular.

Sinusoidal ac voltages are available from a variety of sources. The most common source is the typical home outlet, which provides an ac voltage that originates at a power plant. The sinusoidal waveform in the figure below with its additional notation will now be used as a model in defining a few basic terms. These terms, however, can be applied to any alternating waveform. It is important to remember, as you proceed through the various definitions, that the vertical scaling is in volts or amperes and the horizontal scaling is in units of time (t).

Waveform: The path traced by a quantity, such as the voltage in plotted as a function of some variable such as time, position, degrees, radiations, temperature, and so on. Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time; denoted by lowercase letters (v1, v2)

Peak amplitude: The maximum value of a waveform as measured from its average, value, denoted by uppercase letters. For the waveform in the figure below, the average value is zero volts, and Vm is defined by the figure. Peak-to-peak value: Denoted by Vp-p, the full voltage between positive and negative peaks of the waveform, that is, the sum of the magnitude of the positive and negative peaks. (The parameter used for an oscilloscope)

Periodic waveform: A waveform that continually repeats itself after the same time interval. The figure below is a periodic waveform. Period (T): The time of a periodic waveform.

Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time. The cycles within T1, T2, and T3 may appear different, but they are all bounded by one period of time and therefore satisfy the definition of a cycle.

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Frequency (f): The number of cycles that occur in 1 s. The frequency of the waveform in Fig. 5 (a) is 1 cycle per second, and for Fig. 5 (b), 2 cycles per second. If a waveform of similar shape had a period of 0.5 s [Fig. 5 (c)], the frequency would be 2 cycles per second. 1 hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle per second (cps).

Fig. 5. Demonstration of the effect of a changing frequency on the period of a sinusoidal.

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Example: For the sinusoidal waveform given below

a. What is the peak value? Ans. Vp = 8 V b. What is the instantaneous value at 0.3 s and 0.6 s? Ans. At 0.3 s, v = -8 V and at 0.6 s, v = 0 c. What is the peak-to-peak value of the waveform? Ans. Vp-p = 8 (-8) = 16 V

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d. What is the period of the waveform? Ans. T = 0.4 s e. How many cycles are shown? Ans. 3 cycles f. What is the frequency of the waveform? Ans. f = 1/T = 1/0.4 = 2.5 Hz

SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING WAVEFORM (10/20)

Since the frequency f is inversely related to the period Tthat is, as one increases, the other decreases by an equal amountthe two can be related by the following equation:

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where f = Hz T = second (s)

SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING WAVEFORM (11/20)

Example: 1. Find the periodic waveform with a frequency of a. 60 Hz T = 1/60 = 16.6667 ms b. 1000 Hz T = 1/1000 = 1 ms

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2. Determine the frequency of the waveform given below

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Solution: Solving for the period T = 25m 5m = 20 ms or T = 35m 15m = 20 ms Solving for the frequency f = 1/T = 1/20m = 50 Hz

The sinusoidal waveform is the only alternating waveform whose shape is unaffected by the response characteristics of R, L, and C element. In other words, if the voltage or current across a resistor, inductor, or capacitor is sinusoidal in nature, the resulting current or voltage for each will also have sinusoidal characteristics, as shown in the figure below.

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The unit of measurement for the horizontal axis can be time, degree, or radians. The term radian can be defined as follow: If we mark off a portion of the circumference of a circle by a length equal to the radius of the circle, as shown in the figure below, the angle resulting is called 1 radian. The result is 1 rad = 57.296 57.3 where 57.3 is the usual approximation applied.

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Defining the radian.

One full circle has 2 radians, as shown in the figure below. That is 2 rad = 360 2 = 2(3.142) = 6.28 2(57.3) = 6.28(57.3) = 359.84 360

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There are 2 radian in one full circle of 360.

SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING WAVEFORM (16/20)

A number of electrical formulas contain a multiplier of . For this reason, it is sometimes preferable to measure angles in radians rather than in degrees. The quantity is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.

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SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING WAVEFORM (17/20)

For comparison purposes, two sinusoidal voltages are in the figure below using degrees and radians as the units of measurement for the horizontal axis.

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Plotting a sine wave versus (a) degrees and (b) radians.

SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING WAVEFORM (18/20)

In the figure below, the time required to complete one revolution is equal to the period (T) of the sinusoidal waveform. The radians subtended in this time interval are 2. Substituting, we have = 2/T or 2f (rad/s)

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SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING WAVEFORM (19/20)

Examples: 1. Determine the angular velocity of a sine wave having a frequency of 60 Hz. Solution: Solving for the angular velocity = 2f = (2)(60) = 376.9911 rad/s

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SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING WAVEFORM (20/20)

2. Determine the frequency and period of the sine wave when the angular frequency is 250 rad/s. Solution: Solving for the frequency

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Solving for the period

GENERAL FORMAT FOR THE SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE OR CURRENT (1/4)

The basic mathematical format for the sinusoidal waveform is Am sin t where Am is the peak value of the waveform and t is the unit of measure for the horizontal axis as shown in the figure below.

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For electrical quantities such as current and voltage, the general format is i(t) = Im sin t v(t) = Vm sin t where the capital letters with the subscript m represent the amplitude, and the lowercase letters i and v represent the instantaneous value of current and voltage at any time t.

GENERAL FORMAT FOR THE SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE OR CURRENT (3/4)

Examples: 1. Given v(t) = 5 sin 200t V , determine v(t) at t = 3 s. Solution: Be sure you are going to convert your calculator in radians. v(3) = 5 sin ((200)(3)) v(3) = 0.2209 V

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GENERAL FORMAT FOR THE SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE OR CURRENT (4/4)

2. Given i(t) = 3 sin 100t A, determine i(t) at t = 2 ms. Solution: Be sure you are going to convert your calculator in radians. i(2m) = 3 sin ((100)(2m)) i(2m) = 0.596 A

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PHASE RELATIONS (1/3)

If the waveform is shifted to the right or left of 0, the expression becomes Am sin (t ) where is the angle in degrees or radians that the waveform has been shifted. If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis with a positive going slope before 0, as shown in the figure below, the expression is Am sin (t + )

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PHASE RELATIONS (2/3)

If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis with a positive going slope after 0, as shown in Fig. 12, the expression is Am sin (t )

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PHASE RELATIONS (3/3)

If the waveform crosses the horizontal axis with a positive-going slope 90 (/2) sooner, as shown in the figure below, it is called a cosine wave; that is sin t = cos (t - 90) cos t = sin (t + 90)

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PHASE DIFFERENCE (1/8)

Phase difference, also called phase angle, in degrees is conventionally defined as a number greater than -180, and less than or equal to +180.

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PHASE DIFFERENCE (2/8)

In phase It means that two waves begin at exactly the same moment. They are lined up. This is for two waves having different amplitudes. (If the amplitudes were the same, you would see only one wave.) The phase difference in this case is 0.

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PHASE DIFFERENCE (3/8)

Phase Opposition When two sine waves begin exactly one-half cycle, or 180, apart, they are said to be in phase opposition.

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PHASE DIFFERENCE (4/8)

Leading Phase Suppose that there are two sine waves, wave X and wave Y, with identical frequencies. If wave X begins a fraction of a cycle earlier than wave Y, then wave X is said to be leading wave Y in phase.

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PHASE DIFFERENCE (5/8)

Leading Phase For this to be true, X must begin its cycle less than 180 before Y. The figure shows wave X is leading wave Y by 90. The difference can be anything greater than 0, up to but not including 180.

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PHASE DIFFERENCE (6/8)

Leading Phase Leading phase is sometimes expressed as a phase angle such that 0 < < +180. In radians, this is 0 < < + . If we say that wave X has a phase of + /2 rad relative to wave Y, we mean that wave X leads wave Y by /2 rad.

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Lagging Phase Suppose that wave X begins its cycle more than 180 but less than 360 ahead of wave Y. In this situation, it is easier to imagine that wave X starts its cycle later than wave Y by some value between but not including 0 and 180. Then wave X is lagging wave Y. The figure shows wave X lagging wave Y by 90. The difference can be anything between but not including 0 and 180.

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Lagging Phase Lagging phase is sometimes expressed as a negative angle such that 180 < < 0. In radians, this is - < < 0. If we say that wave X has a phase of 45 relative to wave Y , we mean that wave X lags wave Y by 45.

TIME DOMAIN AND FREUQENCY DOMAIN (1/2)

Time Domain It is a term used to describe the analysis of mathematical functions, or physical signals, with respect to time. Ex: v(t) = 5.4 sin(6t + 60) V Frequency Domain It is a term used to describe the domain for analysis of mathematical functions or signals with respect to frequency, rather than time. Ex: I(j) = 4.560 A

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TIME DOMAIN AND FREUQENCY DOMAIN (2/2)

Converting Time Domain to Frequency Domain and vice versa Time Domain Frequency Domain i(t) = 1.4 sin 5t A I(j) = 1.4 0 A v(t) = 7.4 sin (7t + 60) V V(j) = 7.4 60 V i(t) = 2.5 sin (6t - 30) A I(j) = 2.5 -30 A

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POWER AND ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) (1/5)

The relationship between voltage and the power delivered is

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where R represents a load resistance. Rather than using instantaneous power, p(t), it is more practical to use a time averaged power (where the averaging is performed over any integer number of cycles). Therefore, AC voltage is often expressed as a root mean square (RMS) value, written as Vrms, because

POWER AND ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) (2/5)

For a sinusoidal voltage,

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For a triangle wave form centered about zero,

For a square wave form centered about zero,

POWER AND ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) (3/5)

Examples: 1. The peak voltage of the AC waveform is 12 V. Find the rms voltage when the waveform is a. Sine wave b. Triangular wave c. Square wave

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POWER AND ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) (4/5)

Solution: For sine wave,

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For square wave,

For triangular wave,

POWER AND ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) (5/5)

2. Find the rms value of the waveform below.

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Solution: Solving for the rms value