The Skeletal System: Bone

Tissue
The Skeletal System: Bone
Tissue
 Functions of Bone and Skeletal
System
 Structure of Bone
 Histology of Bone Tissue
 Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone
 Bone Formation
 Bone’s Role in Calcium
Homeostasis
 Exercise and Bone Tissue
Functions of Bone and
Skeletal System
 Support
 Protection
 Assistance in Movement
 Mineral Homeostasis
 Blood Cell Production
 Triglyceride Storage
Functions of Bone and
Skeletal System
n Support
q Structural framework of the body
n Supports soft tissues
n Provides attachment points for tendons of
skeletal muscle
n Protection
q Protects important internal organs
n Cranium protects brain
n Vertebrae protects spinal cord
n Ribs protect lungs and heart
Functions of Bone and
Skeletal System
n Assistance in Movement
q Skeletal muscle attaches to bone
n Skeletal muscle contraction pulls on bone
producing movement
n Mineral Homeostasis
q Bone tissue stores several minerals
n Acts to serve as a reservoir of critical minerals
q Calcium (99% of body’s content)
q Phosphorus
Functions of Bone and
Skeletal System
n Blood Cell Production
q Red bone marrow produces (Hemopoiesis)
n Red blood cells
n White blood cells
n Platelets
n Triglyceride Storage
q Yellow bone marrow
n Triglycerides stored in adipose cells
q Serves as a potential chemical energy reserve
 Structure of Bone

n Long Bone Anatomy

(Humerus)
 Diaphysis
 Epiphyses
 Metaphyses
Epiphyseal growth plate
 Articular cartilage
 Periosteum
Perforating fibers
 Medullary cavity
 Endosteum
Histology of Bone Tissue

 Extracellular
matrix surrounding
widely separated cells
 Matrix
25% water
25% collagen fibers
50% crystallized mineral salts
 The most abundant mineral salt is
calcium phosphate
Histology of Bone Tissue

A process called calcification is

initiated by bone-building cells called
osteoblasts

 Mineral salts are deposited and

crystalize in the framework formed
by the collagen fibers of the
extracellular matrix

 Bone’s flexibility depends on collagen

Histology of Bone Tissue

 Fourtypes of cells are present in

bone tissue
 Osteogenic cells
 Undergo cell division; the resulting cells
develop into osteoblasts
 Osteoblasts
 Bone-building cells
 Synthesize extracellular matrix of bone
tissue
 Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells
Histology of Bone Tissue
 Osteoclasts
 Release enzymes that digest the mineral
components of bone matrix (resorption)
 Regulate blood calcium level
Histology of Bone Tissue

 Bone may be categorized as:

 Compact
 Spongy
Histology of Bone Tissue

 Compact Bone
 Resists the stresses produced by weight
and movement
 Components of compact bone are
arranged into repeating structural units
called osteons or Haversian systems
 Osteons consist of a central (Haversian)
canal with concentrically arranged
lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, and
canaliculi
Histology of Bone Tissue

 Osteon
 Central canals run longitudinally through
bone
 Around the central canals are
concentric lamellae
Rings of calcified matrix (like the rings of a
tree trunk)
 Between the lamellae are small spaces
called lacunae which contain osteocytes
 Radiating in all directions from the
lacunae are tiny canaliculi filled with
 Histology of Bone Tissue
 Osteon
 Canaliculi connect
lacunae, forming a
system of
interconnected
canals
Providing routes
for nutrients and
oxygen to reach
the osteocytes

 The organization of
osteons changes in
response to the
physical demands
placed on the
skeleton
Histology of Bone Tissue
 Spongy Bone
 Lacks osteons
 Lamellae are arranged in a lattice of
thin columns called trabeculae
Spaces between the trabeculae make bones
lighter
Trabeculae of spongy bone support and
protect the red bone marrow
Hemopoiesis (blood cell production) occurs
in spongy bone
Histology of Bone Tissue

 Spongy Bone
 Within each trabecula are lacunae that
contain osteocytes
 Osteocytes are nourished from the
blood circulating through the
trabeculae
 Interior bone tissue is made up
primarily of spongy bone
 The trabeculae of spongy bone are
oriented along lines of stress
helps bones resist stresses without
breaking
Histology of Bone Tissue
 Blood and Nerve Supply
of Bone
 Bone is richly supplied
with blood
 Periosteal arteries
accompanied by nerves
supply the periosteum
and compact bone
 Epiphyseal veins
carry blood away from
long bones
 Nerves accompany the
blood vessels that
supply bones
 The periosteum is rich
in sensory nerves
Bone Formation

 The process by which bone forms is

called ossification
 Bone formation occurs in four
situations:
 1) Formation of bone in an embryo
 2) Growth of bones until adulthood
 3) Remodeling of bone
 4) Repair of fractures
Bone Formation

 Formation of Bone in an Embryo

 Cartilage formation and ossification
occurs during the sixth week of
embryonic development
Bone Formation

 Formation of Bone in an Embryo

 Bone formation follows one of two
patterns
Intramembranous ossification
Flat bones of the skull and mandible are formed in
this way
“Soft spots” that help the fetal skull pass through
the birth canal later become ossified forming the
skull
Endochondral ossification
The replacement of cartilage by bone
Most bones of the body are formed in this way
including long bones
 Flat
bone Blood

Bone Formation
of skull capillary
Ossification
center
Mesenchymal
cell
Osteobla
st
Mandibl Collagen
e fiber

1 Development of ossification
center

Osteocyte in Mesenchy
lacuna me
condenses
Blood
Canaliculu vessel
s
Spongy
Osteobla
bone
st
trabeculae
Osteobla
Newly calcified
bone st
matrix

2 Calcificati 3 Formation of
on trabeculae

Periosteu
m

Spongy bone
tissue
Compact bone
tissue

4 Development of the
 Perichondriu
Perichondri
m
um

Bone Formation
Proxima
Proxim
l
al
epiphysi
epiphys
Hyaline
Hyalin
cartilag
e
e
cartila
Uncalcifie
Uncalcifi
Periosteu
m
Uncalcifi
ed
matrix
Calcifie
d
ed d
matrix matrix
Periosteum
Diaphysi
Diaphys Primary
Calcifie Nutrie ossificati (covering
s
is
d nt on compact
matrix artery center bone)
Medulla
Spong ry
Distal y cavity
epiphysi
epiphys bone
s
is
Nutrient
artery and
vein

1 Developmen
Development 2 Growth of 3 Development of 4 Developmen
tofof cartilage primary t of
cartilage model ossification the
center medullary

Articular
cartilage
Epiphyse
Secondar al
y artery Spongy
ossificati and
Uncalcifi bone
Epiphyseal
on ed plate
matrix

Nutrient
artery and
vein

5 Development of 6 Formation of articular

secondary cartilage
Bone Growth During Infancy,
Childhood and Adolescence
Growth in Length
The growth in length of long
bones involves two major
events:
 1) Growth of cartilage on
the epiphyseal plate
 2) Replacement of
cartilage by bone tissue in
the epiphyseal plate
 Bone Growth During Infancy,
Childhood and Adolescence

 Osteoclasts dissolve the calcified cartilage, and

osteoblasts invade the area laying down bone matrix
 The activity of the epiphyseal plate is the way bone can
increase in length
 At adulthood, the epiphyseal plates close and bone
replaces all the cartilage leaving a bony structure called
the epiphyseal line
Bone Growth During Infancy,
Childhood and Adolescence
 Growth in Thickness
 Bones grow in thickness at the outer
surface
 Remodeling of Bone
 Bone forms before birth and continually
renews itself
 The ongoing replacement of old bone
tissue by new bone tissue
 Old bone is continually destroyed and
new bone is formed in its place
throughout an individual’s life
Bone Growth During Infancy,
Childhood and Adolescence

A balance must exist between the

actions of osteoclasts and osteoblasts

 If too much new tissue is formed, the bones

become abnormally thick and heavy

 Excessive loss of calcium weakens the bones,

as occurs in osteoporosis

 Or they may become too flexible, as in rickets

and osteomalacia
Factors Affecting Bone Growth
and Bone Remodeling
Normal bone metabolism depends on several
factors
 Minerals
 Large amounts of calcium and phosphorus and
smaller amounts of magnesium, fluoride, and
manganese are required for bone growth and
remodeling
 Vitamins
 Vitamin A stimulates activity of osteoblasts
 Vitamin C is needed for synthesis of collagen
 Vitamin D helps build bone by increasing the
absorption of calcium from foods in the
gastrointestinal tract into the blood
 Vitamins K and B12 are also needed for
Factors Affecting Bone Growth
and Bone Remodeling
Hormones

 During childhood, the hormones most important

to bone growth are growth factors (IGFs),
produced by the liver
IGFs stimulate osteoblasts, promote cell division at the
epiphyseal plate, and enhance protein synthesis

 Thyroid hormones also promote bone growth by

stimulating osteoblasts

 Insulin promotes bone growth by increasing the

synthesis of bone proteins
Factors Affecting Bone Growth
and Bone Remodeling
 Hormones
 Estrogen and testosterone cause a
dramatic effect on bone growth
Cause of the sudden “growth spurt” that
occurs during the teenage year
Promote changes in females, such as widening
of the pelvis
Shut down growth at epiphyseal plates
 Parathyroid hormone, calcitriol, and
calcitonin are other hormones that can
affect bone remodeling
Fracture and Repair of
Bone
 Fracture Types
 Open (compound) fracture
The broken ends of the bone protrude through the skin
 Closed (simple) fracture
Does not break the skin
 Comminuted fracture
The bone is splintered, crushed, or broken into pieces
 Greenstick fracture
A partial fracture in which one side of the bone is broken and the
other side bends
 Impacted fracture
One end of the fractured bone is forcefully driven into another
 Pott’s fracture
Fracture of the fibula, with injury of the tibial articulation
 Colles’ fracture
A fracture of the radius in which the distal fragment is displaced
 Stress fracture
A series of microscopic fissures in bone
Fracture and Repair of
Bone
Fracture and Repair of
Bone
Fracture and Repair of
Bone
Fracture and Repair of
Bone
Calcium and phosphorus needed to strengthen and harden
new bone after a fracture are deposited only gradually and
may take several months
The repair of a bone fracture involves the following steps
 1) Formation of fracture hematoma
Blood leaks from the torn ends of blood vessels, a
clotted mass of blood forms around the site of the
fracture
 2) Fibrocartilaginous callus formation
Fibroblasts invade the fracture site and produce
collagen fibers bridging the broken ends of the bone
 3) Bony callus formation
Osteoblasts begin to produce spongy bone trabeculae
joining portions of the original bone fragments
 4) Bone remodeling
Compact bone replaces spongy bone
Fracture and Repair of
Osteo Periosteu
n mCompact
Spongy
bone
bone
Fracture

Bone hematoma

Blood
vessel
Fibrobla
Phagocy
st
te
Phagocy Fibrocartilagin
te
Fracture ous
hemato Osteobla
st
Red Collagen
blood fiber
Chondrobla
Bone st
Cartila
fragme
ge
Osteocy
te
1 Formation of fracture 2 Fibrocartilaginous callus
hematoma formation

Bony New
callus compact
Osteobla
st
Spongy Osteocla
bone st

Osteocy
te
3 Bony callus 4 Bone
Bone’s Role in Calcium
Homeostasis
 Bone is the body’s major calcium
reservoir
 Levels of calcium in the blood are
maintained by controlling the rates of
calcium resorption from bone into blood
and of calcium deposition from blood into
bone
 Both nerve and muscle cells depend on
calcium ions (Ca2+) to function properly
 Blood clotting also requires Ca2+
 Many enzymes require Ca2+ as a cofactor
Bone’s Role in Calcium
Homeostasis
 Actions that help elevate blood Ca2+
level
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
regulates Ca2+ exchange between
blood and bone tissue
PTH increases the number and activity
of osteoclasts
PTH acts on the kidneys to decrease
loss of Ca2+ in the urine
PTH stimulates formation of calcitriol a
hormone that promotes absorption of
calcium from foods in the
Bone’s Role in Calcium
Homeostasis
Bone’s Role in Calcium
Homeostasis
 Actions that work to decrease blood
Ca2+ level

 The thyroid gland secretes calcitonin

(CT) which inhibits activity of
osteoclasts

 The result is that CT promotes bone

formation and decreases blood Ca2+
level
Exercise and Bone
Tissue
 Bone tissue alters its strength in response
to changes in mechanical stress
 Under stress, bone tissue becomes stronger
through deposition of mineral salts and
production of collagen fibers by osteoblasts
 Unstressed bones diminishes because of the
loss of bone minerals and decreased numbers of
collagen fibers
 The main mechanical stresses on bone are
those that result from the pull of skeletal
muscles and the pull of gravity
 Weight-bearing activities help build and
retain bone mass
Aging and Bone Tissue

 The level of sex hormones diminishes

during middle age, especially in women
after menopause
 A decrease in bone mass occurs
 Bone resorption by osteoclasts outpaces
bone deposition by osteoblasts
 Female bones generally are smaller and
less massive than males
 Loss of bone mass in old age has a
greater adverse effect in females
 Aging and Bone Tissue

 There are two principal effects of aging on

bone tissue:
 1) Loss of bone mass
Results from the loss of calcium from
bone matrix
The loss of calcium from bones is one of
the symptoms in osteoporosis
 2) Brittleness
Results from a decreased rate of protein
synthesis
End of Chapter 6