1

Control II
muawia15@hotmail.com
The main objective of control II is to cover
the topics of three main items namely error
analysis, PID controller, and
compensators with all their types.
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3
Error Analysis
Steady state Error is a measure of system
accuracy when a specific type of input is
applied to a control system.

Steady state errors are unavoidable in
design, just keep the error to minimum.
(tolerable value)
Steady-state error is the difference
between the input and the output for a
prescribed test input as t .
4
5
Errors contributing factors:
S.S errors caused by nonlinear elements:
-Nonlinear Dead Zone.
-Nonlinear Friction
If an amplifier is used in a control system
has input output characteristics as shown
in following figure

output
input
0 D
-D
Mag. Less than DZ point
6
When the input magnitude is less than the
dead zone, the output of the amplifier
would be zero and the control will not be
able to correct the error.
So the steady state error is related to the
size of the dead zone.
In control physical objects, friction is
unavoidable.
Coulumb friction is a common cause of
steady state errors in control systems.

7
Consider that the torque generated by a
step motor is related to the rotor position
of the motor.
When there is no friction, the step motor is
supposed to have a zero steady state
error.
However the rotor of the motor sees a
coulumb friction torque T
f
.
Then the motor torque must first overcome
this frictional torque before producing any
motion.
8
Thus as the motor torque falls below T
f
, it
may stop at any position inside the shaded
band as shown.

T
f
-T
f
Torque
0
0 is equilibrium point
Threshold to
move
Configuration SSE
The SSE that must be analyzed are errors
that arise from the configuration of the
system itself.

For example changing K (forward gain) will
affect the SSE.
Type of input also affect the SSE value.
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10
S.S Error of Linear Systems:
Depends on input and the type of the
system.
In control system if:
r(t) is the reference input
C(t) controlled output.
e(t) error signal then:
e(t) = r(t) c(t)
Provided that r(t) and C(t) are
dimensionally the same i.e voltage
controlling a voltage, position controlling a
position, and so on.
Open-Loop S.S.E
r(t) is input, y(t) is the output, G is gain
then for open-loop
e
ss
= lim [(r(t) y(t)]

t
in Laplace e(s) = r(s) y(s)
but y(s) = G(s)r(s) then
e(s) = r(s) G(s)r(s) = [1 G(s)]r(s)

11
Example
If G(s) =
7s
2
+ 18s + 15
s
3
+ 5s
2
+ 11s + 15

Find open loop e
ss
(t) for a Ramp input
12
Solution
We have e(s) = [1 G(s)]r(s)
and e
ss
(t) = lim s e(s)

s0


se(s)

= s[s
3
+ 5s
2
+ 11s +15 (7s
2
+ 18s + 15)]1/s
2
s
3
+ 5s
2
+ 11s + 15
= s
2
2s -7
s
3
+5s
2
+ 11s +15

13
And e
ss
(t) = lim s e(s)

s0

= -7/15

check using Matlab
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Feedback Error
The last equation is valid for open loop
systems only.

The feedback loop element H(s) is usually
incorporated in the feedback loop.

Here we have a feedback error E(t).
Or
E(t) = r(t) b(t)
16
G(s)
H(s)
b(t)
B(s)
e(t)
E(s)
-
+
r(t)
R(s)
C(t)
C(s)
E(t) = r(t) b(t)
E(s) = R(s) B(s) = R(s) H(s)C(s)
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For example if 10v reference signal is
used to regulate 100v supply, H is
constant and equal to 0.1
When the output voltage is exactly 100v
(hopefully) , the error signal is
E(t) = 10 (0.1)(100) = 0

The S.S error of a feedback control
system is defined as the error when time
approaches infinity.
S.S Error =e
ss
= lim E(t)

t
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With reference to Laplace transformed,
error function is: (see feedback diagram)
E(s) = R(s)
1+G(s)H(s)
By use of the final value theorem, the
steady state error of a system is:
e
ss
= lim E(t) = lim sE(s)

t s0
Thus
e
ss
= lim sR(s)
s0
1+G(s)H(s) (*)


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S.S error due to a Step input: (static position eror)
In step input, the laplace transform of input
is R/S then last equation becomes:

e
ss
= lim R
s0
1+G(s)H(s)

= R (1)
1+ lim G(s)H(s)

s0


20
For convenience we define

K
p
= lim G(s)H(s) type 0

s0

where K
p
is the step error constant.
Then
e
ss
(t) = R
1+ K
p
We see that for e
ss
to be zero for step input K
p

must be infinity.
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S.S error due to Ramp input: (static velocity error)
Input r(t) = Rt.u
s
(t) and Laplace of r(t) is

R(s) = R/s
2
sub. In equation (*)

e
ss
= lim R
s0
s+sG(s)H(s)

= R (2)
lim sG(s)H(s)
s0 type 1



22
If we define K
r
as Ramp error constant
= lim sG(s)H(s)
s0

Then the Ramp equation is:
e
ss
= R
K
r
which is the S.S error
when the input is a Ramp function.

For e
ss
to be zero when input is a Ramp,
K
r
must be infinity

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S.S Error
r(t)
t
Output c(t)
Ramp S.S Error
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S.S Error due to Parabolic input: (acceleration error)
P(t) = Rt
2
us(t)
t
And Laplace transform of P(t) is:
P(s) = R
s
3
then e
ss
in eq. (*) is:

e
ss
= R (3)
S
2
+ lim S
2
G(s)H(s)

s0
=0 when s goes to 0 (but limit does not
because S
2
may be cancelled by G(s) or H(s) )

25
And defining the parabolic error constant
as K
a
where K
a
= lim S
2
G(s)H(s)

s0
Then
e
ss
= R
K
a

Taking power of S we can write
Type 0 system s=0
Type 1 system s=1
Type 2 system s=2 and so forth.
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Type of
system
s
step
K
p
Ramp
K
r
prb
K
a
Step
e=R/(1+k
p
)
Ramp
e=R/k
r
Parab
e=R/k
a
0 k 0 0
e
ss
=R/(1+k
p
)
e
ss
= e
ss
=
1 k 0 e
ss
= 0
e
ss
=R/k
e
ss
=
2 k e
ss
= 0 e
ss
=0
e
ss
=R/K
3 e
ss
= 0

e
ss
= 0

e
ss
= 0

S.S errors due to step, Ramp, and parabolic inputs
Example
A unity feedback system with forward TF
G = 120(s+2)/[(s+3)(s+4)] find the SSE
if input was:

i/ 5u(t), ii/ 5t u(t) iii/ 5t
2
u(t)
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Solution:
i/ input 5 u(t) has 5/s input step function
thus we use eq (1)
= 5/[(1 + lim G(s).H(s)]

s0


= 5/ [ 1 + 20] = 5/21


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ii/ input 5t u(t) = 5/s
2
so type 1 so we
use eq (2) for a ramp input

R
lim sG(s)H(s) H(s)=1

s0

= 5/0 =
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iii/ input 5t
2
u(t) = 10/s
3
so type 2 we
use eq (3) for a parabolic input

R
lim s
2
G(s)H(s)

s0

= 10/0 =
Use Matlab to ensure the previous
answers for each input.

Example :
Find the SSE for a unity feedback system
for the last three inputs if G(s) =
100[(s+2)(s+6)]/[s(s+3)(s+4)]
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Solution:
i/ for input 5/s type 0 SSE = 5/ = 0

ii/ for input 5/s2 type 1 SSE = R/[lim sG(s)]
s will cancel s for G(s) so (5.12)/(100.12)
=
5/100 = 1/20

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iii/ For input 5t
2
u(t) = 10/s
3
we obtain

SSE = 10/0 =
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Using K
p
, K
r
, and K
a
It is useful to find the above three static
error constant values first then apply
according to input.

Example: For the following figure find the
three error constants then find the error of
the system for step, ramp, and parabolic
inputs.
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500(s+2)(s+5)
(s+8)(s+10)(s+12)
e(t)
E(s)
-
+
r(t)
R(s)
C(t)
C(s)
Solution
kp = lim G(s) = 500 x2x5
s0 8x10x12 = 5.208

Kr = lim sG(s) = 0
s0

Ka = = lim s
2
G(s) = 0
s0


36
For step input SSE = 1/[1+kp] = 0.161

For a ramp input SSE = 1/Kr 1/0 =

For a parabolic input SSE = 1/Ka =1/0 =
37
What information you find if we say the
Kp for a system = 1000?
1. system is stable
2. System is type 0
3. input test signal is step.
4. Kr= Ka= 0 and ess =
5. SEE = 1/(1+Kp) = 1/1001

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Gain design due required error
A unity feedback system with G(s) =

K(s+5)/[s(s+6)(s+7)(s+8)]

Find value of K so that SEE is 10% in type 1
system
39
Solution:
SEE = 1/Kr = 0.1 so Kr = 10
but Kr = lim sG(s)
s0 = (Kx5)/(6x7x8)

which yields K= 672

(use Matlab to solve this problem)
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Example:
A unity feedback system with forward TF

G(s) = K(s+12)/[(s+14)(s+18)]

Find the value of K to yield 10% SSE
41
Answer:
this is type 0 so 1/(1+Kp) = 0.1
and Kp= 9
But Kp = lim G(s) = (Kx12)/(14x18)
s0 from which

K= 189
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PID Controller

How to use Proportional (P), the integral
(I), and the derivative (D) controls, to
obtain a desired response.
Consider the following unity feedback
system:
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Plant: A system to be controlled
Controller: Provides the excitation for the
plant; Designed to control the overall
system behavior.
45
A block diagram of a PID controller
46
The transfer function of the PID controller
looks like the following:


Kp = Proportional gain
KI = Integral gain
Kd = Derivative gain
47
The variable (e) represents the tracking
error, the difference between the desired
input value (R) and the actual output (Y).
This error signal (e) will be sent to the PID
controller.
The controller computes both the
derivative and the integral of this error
signal.
48
The signal (u) just past the controller is
now equal to:

The proportional gain (Kp) times the
magnitude of the error plus the integral
gain (Ki) times the integral of the error plus
the derivative gain (Kd) times the
derivative of the error.
49
-This signal (u) will be sent to the plant, and
the new output (Y) will be obtained.

-The new output (Y) will be sent back to the
sensor again to find the new error signal (e).
50
The controller takes this new error signal
and computes its derivative and its integral
again.
This process goes on and on
51
The characteristics of P, I, and D
controllers
A proportional controller (Kp) will have the
effect of reducing the rise time and will
reduce ,but never eliminate, the steady
state error.

An integral control (Ki) will have the effect
of eliminating the steady-state error, but it
may make the transient response worse.
52
A derivative control (Kd) will have the
effect of increasing the stability of the
system, reducing the overshoot, and
improving the transient response.

Effects of each of controllers Kp, Kd, and
Ki on a closed-loop system are
summarized in the following table .
53
CL
RESPONSE
RISE
TIME
OVERSH
OOT
SETTLING
TIME
S-S ERROR
Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease
Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate
Kd
Small
Change
Decrease Decrease Small Change
54
Example
simple mass, spring, and damper problem
55
The modeling equation of this system is

56
Let
M = 1kg
b = 10 N.s/m
k = 20 N/m

Find Zeta
57
The goal is to show how each of Kp, Ki
and Kd contributes to obtain

Fast rise time
Minimum overshoot
No steady-state error
58
Open-loop step response
num=1;
den=[1 10 20];
step(num,den)
59
From the previous response
The DC gain of the plant transfer function
is 1/20, so 0.05 is the final value of the
output to an unit step input.
This corresponds to the steady-state error of
0.95, quite large indeed.
Furthermore, the rise t
r
time is about one
second, and the settling time t
s
is about
1.5 seconds.
60
Let's design a controller that will reduce
the rise time, reduce the settling time, and
eliminates the steady-state error.
Proportional control
From the table shown before, we see that
the proportional controller (Kp) reduces
the rise time, increases the overshoot, and
reduces the steady-state error.
61
The closed-loop transfer function of the
above system with a proportional
controller is:
62
Let the proportional gain (Kp) equals 300

Kp=300;
num=[Kp];
den=[1 10 20+Kp];
t=0:0.01:2;
step(num,den,t)
63
The above plot shows that the proportional controller
reduced both the rise time and the steady-state error,
increased the overshoot, and decreased the settling time
by small amount.
64
Proportional-Derivative control
Previous table shown above, we see that
the derivative controller (Kd) reduces both
the overshoot and the settling time.
The closed-loop transfer function of the
given system with a PD controller is:
65
Kp=300;
Kd=10;
num=[10 300];
den=[1 20 320];
t=0:0.01:2;
step(num,den,t)
66
The derivative controller reduced both the
overshoot and the settling time, and had small
effect on the rise time and the steady-state
error.
67
Proportional-Integral control
From the table, we see that an integral
controller (Ki) decreases the rise time,
increases both the overshoot and the
settling time, and eliminates the steady-
state error.
For the given system, the closed-loop
transfer function with a PI control is:
68
Kp=30;
Ki=70;
num=[30 70];
den=[1 10 50 70];
t=0:0.01:2;
step(num,den,t)
69
The response shows that the integral
controller eliminated the steady-state
error.
70
Proportional-Integral-Derivative
control
Now, let's take a PID controller.
The closed-loop transfer function of the
given system with a PID controller is:
71
Kp=350;
Ki=300;
Kd=50;
num=[Kd Kp Ki];
den=[1 10+Kd 20+Kp Ki];
t=0:0.01:2;
step(num,den,t)
72
Now, we have obtained the system with
no overshoot, fast rise time, and no
steady-state error.
73
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Tips for designing a PID
controller
Obtain an open-loop response and determine
what needs to be improved

Add a proportional control to improve the rise time
Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot
Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-
state error
Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a
desired overall response.

74
75
Compensators
Compensators are used to alter the
response of a control system in order to
accommodate the set design criteria.

By introducing additional poles and/or
zeros to a system, the response of the
system will change significantly.

76

The compensator is an additional device or
a component to improve the system
performance. (may be beside the original
controller).


77
Lead compensation alters the transient
response of systems.
This includes overshoot, rise time (T
R
),
settling time (T
S
), and peak time (T
P
).

Lag compensation alters steady-state
error of systems. (but may get the
transient worse- it is the pay)
78
Type of Compensators
Cascade Compensators

R(s)
C(s)
G(s) G
c
(s)
79





where

makes this a lead compensator and
abs(Z) = 1/T1 closer to origin

makes this a lag compensator.
abs(P) = 1/T2 closer to origin

80
Feedback Compensators

R(s)
C(s)
G(s)
G
c
(s)
81
Consider the first order compensator

k(s + z)
G
c
(s) =

(s + p)

G
c
(s) is added to achieve a min SSE
and the relative required stability.
82
Phase-Lead
Phase-Lead is provided by
Gc = 1 + oTs o >1
1 + Ts

o = p/z >1 (required ratio of zero to
pole of the compensator when < 1 gives a
Lag compensator).
Phase-Lead zero = -1/ (oT)
Phase-Lead pole = -1/T
Thus representing phase-lead using poles
and zeros
Gc = S + 1/ (oT)
S + (1/T)

So when you find o and T the
compensator is ready.
83
84
Phase-Lead
In the previous equation if z < p , the
compensator is a Lead compensator.

-1/T -1/ (oT)
z p
The zeros are closer to the origin than poles
85
86
1/ The magnitude of Gc is 20 log o
2/ The max phase Lead e
m
occurs half
way between poles and zeros frequencies
therefore e
m
= z.p = 1/(T o) and
T = 1/ (e
m
o )
e
m
meets the Half of the magnitude

3/ For compensated max phase |
sin(|) = o - 1
o +1

Maximum phase shift
max
of phase-lead
compensator
= sin
-1
o - 1
o + 1
and occurs at e
m
= 1/(T o )
The value of gain at that frequency is
(0.5)20 log o = 10 log o

87
Steps in design of phase-lead
compensator
STEP 1.
Choose gain K to satisfy steady-state
requirements.
STEP 2.
Draw Bode-diagram of KG(s) and find PM
= (current phase margin)
88
STEP 3.
Find the difference of phase margin
= Required PM Current PM
Step 4
give a margin of 5 degree and apply sin
formula to find o
sin(| ) = (o - 1)/(o +1)
from which find o

89
STEP 5.
Find The new crossover frequency
c
=

m
at (0.5)20 log o
Apply T = 1/[e
m
sqrt(o)] to find T
Step 6
Construct Gc(s)
Check the new cascaded Gc(s).G(s) (and
C.L ) Bode to ensure the required PM


90
91
Phase-Lead Example
A unity feedback system with open loop TF
k
(10s+1)(s+1)

Is required to have
1/steady state error does not exceed 1% for
a unit step (static position error kp)
2/Open-Loop phase margin of at least 45
o

92
Solution
i/ Determine the required value of k for E
ss
e
ss
= 0.01 = lim SE(s) =
= lim [ 1/(1+[(k/(1+10s)(1+s))]
for unit step
e
ss
= 1/(1 + kp)
0.01 = 1/(1+ kp) from which
kp = 1/0.01
= 100 then k = 100

ii/ Check the current phase margin of kG(s)
( with k=100) from which the current

PM = 20


93
94
KG(s) Bode before
Compensation
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)
Bode Diagram
Gm = Inf dB (at Inf rad/sec) , Pm = 19.8 deg (at 3.08 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
95
So a difference of (45-20) = 25 should be
compensated
Since we have a margin of 5 degree we
choose 30
o
and substitute
sin(30) = (o - 1)/(o +1) from which
o = 3 so the compensator TF
Gc(s) = 1+3Ts
1+ Ts

96
Now the value of T must be found.
We have mag of Gc at max phase shift
= (0.5) 20 log o
= 20 log 3 = 9.54 dB and we know
e
m
meets the Half of the magnitude of the
max phase-lead shift
= (0.5)(9.54) = -4.77 dB (-ve)

Now from Bode e
m
= 4 rad/sec and
hence T = 1/[e
m
sqrt(o)] =1/[(4)sqrt(3)]
T = 0.14
97
So G
c
will be

G
c
= 1 + 0.42S
1 + 0.14S

To check the effect of Gc see the Bode &
response of the O.L with and without the
compensator. (new ph margin of 45.1)
98
Compensated open-Loop bode diagram
-100
-50
0
50
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)
Bode Diagram
Gm = Inf dB (at Inf rad/sec) , Pm = 45.1 deg (at 4.09 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
Step response for open loop after
compensation (with k=100)
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
100
-60
-40
-20
0
20
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)
Bode Diagram
Gm = Inf dB (at Inf rad/sec) , Pm = 81 deg (at 5.45 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
Bode of compensated Closed Loop
101
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Response of closed loop after compensation
Another Phase-Lead example
Consider the system with open-Loop T.F of
G(s) = 4/[s(s+2)]
Is desired to have at least 50 phase margin
with 0.1 e
ss
for a ramp input.

Practice
102
Solution
Wit h a Ramp input it is a velocity error Kv
We know ess = 1/Kv
0.1 = 1/Kv so kv = 10
With k=10 G(s) = 40/[s(s+2)]
1/ From Bode of the open- loop the phase
margin is 18 degree, so 50-18 =32 should
be compensated.
Take 5 degree as safety gives 37 degree




103
Sin(37) = (o - 1)/(o +1) from which
o = 4.1
Thus Gc = 1 + (4.1)TS
1 + T S
Now T must be found
-20 log o = -12.3

104
Half of -12.3 = -6.13 correspond to e
m

From Bode e
m
= 8.7 rad/sec
hence T = 1/[e
m
sqrt(o)] = 0.056 sec

Thus Gc = 1+ (0.056)(4.1)S
1 + (0.056 ) S

105
106
-50
0
50
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-180
-135
-90
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)
Bode Diagram
Gm = Inf dB (at Inf rad/sec) , Pm = 18 deg (at 6.17 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
Bode of k.G(s)
uncompensated
Or Gc = 1 + 0.23S
1+ 0.056S

Will be in series with G(s)
(Gc).(G(s)) = 9.2 s + 40
-------------------------------------
0.056 s^3 + 1.112 s^2 + 2 s

Now check (Gc).K.(G) phase margin
107
108
-100
-50
0
50
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10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-180
-135
-90
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Bode Diagram
Gm = Inf dB (at Inf rad/sec) , Pm = 50.1 deg (at 8.93 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
Bode for Gc(s).(G(s))
Note: the 50 PM is obtained
109
-100
-50
0
50
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10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-180
-135
-90
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Compensated
Uncompensated
Bode Diagram
Frequency (rad/sec)
Compensated & Uncompensated Bode
Phase-Lead Verification
Suppose that a phase Lead is
Gc(s) = 1 + 5s
1 + s

from which T = 1 and o = 5
Calculate |
from Bode verify | max and e
m


110
| max = sin-1 o - 1 5 - 1
o + 1 = 5+1 = 41.8
From Bode is the same
Also it is at e = 0.45 which correspond to
half magnitude = 7.0 as shown.
= 10 Log 5 = 7
Holds with e = 1/[T.sqr(o)] = 1/[1.sqr(5)]
= 0.45


111
Also we check PZ s-plane to ensure that
zero is closer to origin than the pole.

Repeat for the other Phase-Lead
compensators

112
113
Pole-Zero Map
Real Axis
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
x
i
s
-1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Zero is closer to origin than pole in Phase-Lead
114
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
0
30
60
System: w
Frequency (rad/sec): 0.452
Phase (deg): 41.8
P
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Bode Diagram
Gm = Inf , Pm = -180 deg (at 0 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
0
5
10
15
System: w
Frequency (rad/sec): 0.452
Magnitude (dB): 7.05
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Phase-Lag Compensator
Design
Called PI type compensator.
Transfer function of a phase-lag
compensator:
Gc(s) = o s + z
s + p
where |p| < | z |
The multiplier o = | p | | z |.
115
Representing phase-Lag using poles and
zeros
Gc = o S + 1/ (oT)
S + (1/T)
But for o < 1 (fraction)

Written as oTS + 1
TS + 1
116
117
Here the pole is dominant (closer to origin)


-1/ (oT) -1/T
S-plane
P
z
Effect of Phase-Lag
compensator

Take o = 1/10 , z= -10 , p= -1 then the
transfer function will be (T=1)
Gc = s + 10
10s + 10
Bode diagram of this compensator will be
as shown
118
119
Bode Diagram of the Example Phase-Lag
Compensator
Max
decrease
attenuation
The logarithmic mean frequency is

m
= sqrt(pz) = sqrt(10) =3.16 (rad/s)
The overall attenuation is
= p/z = 1/10 = 0.1 (< 1 )
20log( ) = 20 (dB) ,
and the maximum decrease in phase (at
the mean frequency) is


120
121
The main use of a phase-lag compensator is to
decrease the steady-state error.

The cost is often to increase the systems rise
and settling times (slower system).
Phase-Lag design steps
1- Find loop gain K required to satisfy
the steady-state error requirement.

2- Evaluate the phase margin (PM) of the
uncompensated system with the loop
gain K to determine if proportional control
is sufficient.

122
3- Using the Bode diagram of the
uncompensated system, find the
frequency where the phase margin
requirement is satisfied.

4- Place the zero of the compensator at
least one decade below this frequency.
123
5- Using the Bode diagram, determine the
attenuation required to make the
chosen frequency the new zero-dB
crossover frequency.


6- Calculate by setting the required
attenuation (negative dB) equal to
20log( ) .
124
125
7- Calculate the pole location p = z ,
and define the compensator to be
8- Check the phase margin of the compensated
system to see if the desired value has been
attained.
1 + oTs
1 + Ts
126
Phase-Lag Compensator
A phase-Lag compensator element has a
TF of Gc =
1 + oTs
1 + Ts
But for o < 1
The Lag compensator adds a real pole
(-1/(T) and a real zero (-1/ oT) in the s-
plane (-1/ oT) is to the left of -1/T

Note that we can use either a lead
compensator or a lag compensator to
satisfy the specs.

The difference is that the lag compensator
increases the phase margin by reducing
the gain crossover frequency,
127
whereas the lead compensator increases
the phase margin by adding more phase
to the system.

128
Therefore, the response of the system with
the lead compensator will generally be
faster than that of the same system with a
lag compensator.

The choice of controller will depend on the
application requirements and constraints.

129
Lag example
Consider P(s) = 1/[s(s+1)] .
Design a lag compensator so that the O. L
phase margin is at least 45 (above -180),
and 0.1 e
ss
for a unit ramp

(also you can check the C.L PM)


130
Solution
1. find k = 1/kv = 1/0.1 = 10 then
k.G(s) = 10/[s(s + 1)
2. plot margin of k.G(s)
3. find the frequency at which the new
phase is satisfied.
4. find the dB drop needed to get this
frequency the cross over frequency
131
132
-100
-50
0
50
100
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10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-180
-135
-90
P
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Bode Diagram
Gm = Inf dB (at Inf rad/sec) , Pm = 18 deg (at 3.08 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
Uncompensated k.G(s)
Mg cross over
Should be here
-20 dB drop
needed
From previous Bode the 45 above -180
correspond to e
c
= 1 rad/s
Locate the zero =-1/(oT) at one decade
below or z= 0.1
From Bode the attenuation dB needed to
compensate the 45 degree is -20 dB
So 20 log o = -20 dB hence
o = 0.1
133
Now from zero =0.1wc =0.1 = 1/(oT)
0.1 = 1/(0.1T)
So T = 100
Or p= o .z = (0.1)(0.1) = 0.01
Thus Gc = 10 . 10S + 1
100S + 1
134
Now check the new Bode with the
compensator.

Note the 45 PM is obtained for the new
O.L Bode.


135
136
Compensated [Gc(s).G(s)]
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
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10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-180
-135
-90
P
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Bode Diagram
Gm = Inf dB (at Inf rad/sec) , Pm = 45.2 deg (at 0.791 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
137
Lag Compensator design Example 2
A unity feedback system with open loop
TF of k
(1+10s)(1+s)(1+0.5s)
Is required to have a phase margin of at
least 45
o
and step sse does not exceed
1% of the C-loop
Determine the value of k and design a
suitable phase-Lag compensator for the
loop.
138
Lag compensator design Solution2
As in the Lead solution
0.01 = 1/( 1+ kp) and k = 100
From K.G(s) Bode diagram the phase
margin is -25.7 ( -ve means below -180)
and the required is +45.
(+45 above -180 for the compensated line)
With 5 degree tolerance take 50 so
-180+50 = -130
o

139
Uncompensated K.G(s) PM = -25.7
-100
-50
0
50
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Bode Diagram
Gm = -9.21 dB (at 1.52 rad/sec) , Pm = -25.7 deg (at 2.42 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-270
-180
-90
0
System: g
Frequency (rad/sec): 0.619
Phase (deg): -130
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-22 dB
So the new required w
c
is 0.62 rad/s

Now take z = 0.1 w
c
(one decade below)
= 0.1(6.2) = 0.062 =z
the mag of dB that should be decreased
so as to let the new zero cross over is
22 dB .
So 20 log o = -22 thus o = 0.08
140
We know z= 0.062 1/ oT = 1/(0.08T)
from which T = 202 sec

So Gc = 1 + oTS = 1 + 16 S
1 + TS 1+ 202S

with k=100 in cascade with G(s)
141
142
-150
-100
-50
0
50
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10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-270
-180
-90
0
P
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Bode Diagram
Gm = 12.1 dB (at 1.46 rad/sec) , Pm = 43.9 deg (at 0.633 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
Compensated Gc(s).K.G(s) for example 2
143
-150
-100
-50
0
50
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10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-270
-180
-90
0
P
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(
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Bode Diagram
Gm = 9.64 dB (at 1.46 rad/sec) , Pm = 47.5 deg (at 0.948 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
Compensated CL Bode
144
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
System: ggcl
Settling Time (sec): 17.8
System: ggcl
Rise Time (sec): 1.93
System: ggcl
Final Value: 0.99
Compensated C.L step Response for example 2
145
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Uncompensated C.L step Response for example 2
Phase Lag-Lead
A combination of Lag with Lead .
Lead overcome the pay of lag .
Lag overcome the pay of Lead.

Practice for G(s) = k/[(s+1)(s+2)(s+10)]
With 0.01 position error (for step)
146
147
Electronic circuit that is Lead network if R1C1>R2C2
Lag network if R1C1<R2C2
Problem 1
For the electrical network derive its
transfer function and state if it is lead or
Lag network.

Hints:
use T = R
1
C and o = R
2
/(R
1
+R
2
)
148
149
Problem 1 circuit
150
151
Divide num and den by o to get the last T.F
Problem 2
1/ For a unity feedback system if forward
loop TF is G(s) = 4/[s(s+0.5)]
Study this system find:
- Static velocity error constant (= )
- Damping ratio =
- Current PM =
Then construct a phase Lag-Lead
compensator and check again.
Discuss the effect of Lag-Lead on the
relative stability.

152
Plot step response of the compensated
and uncompensated system in one graph.

Plot unit ramp response for compensated
and uncompensated in one graph

Watch SSE and discuss.
use lead only then lag only and compare.
153
Look at Table 9.1 in Norman Nise for
using operational amp to have P I D
compensators.
154
Gain adjustment
using Frequency Response
One of the most important issues in
control system design is to add an
amplifier without affecting the response so
much.

We know that adding a gain K will
increase overshoot of the C.L system
155
The problem is to know the suitable gain K
that improve the system without increasing
the overshoot. (gain adjustment)

To do gain adjustment via frequency
response, the following relationships must
be known


156
Zeta & overshoot relation

, = - Lin(ov %)
(t)
2
+ Lin
2
(ov%)

Find , for 9.5%
Prove that for 20% OV , = 0.456

157
Phase-margin & zeta

PM = tan
-1
2 ,
-2,
2
+ 1+ 4,
4


158
Phase-Margin & e
If phase-margin = 60
o
then e is found
where 60 is the difference between -180
and 60 or -180+60 = -120 .

Then from Bode e is found.
159
K adjustment design example
For the following position control system
use frequency response to find the value
of the preamplifier K to yield 9.5%
overshoot for the C.L step response.
160
161
K
100/(s+100 1/(s+36)
1/s C(s)
R(s)
Desired position
(set point)
Pre-
amp
Power amp.
Motor
&Load
shaft
velocity
Shaft
position
Position control system
Solution
1. Choose initial gain value (k = 3.6 )
2. Draw Bode for the C.L system with gain
= 3.6

C.L = 360
S
3
+ 136S
2
+ 3600S + 360

162
3. use overshoot eq. to find ,
, = 0.6

4. use PM eq. to find PM
PM = 59.2
5. find e on the Bode that yield
(-180+59.2 = -120.8) = 14.8 rad/s
163
164
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
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Bode Diagram
Gm = 62.7 dB (at 60 rad/sec) , Pm = -180 deg (at 0 rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
-270
-180
-90
0
System: g
Frequency (rad/sec): 14.7
Phase (deg): -120
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C.L with k = 3.6
6. At 14.8 Magnitude is -44 dB
Then
20 Log Km = 44 dB
From which Km= 162.2
7. finally K = (initial K)*Km = 3.6x162.2
= 583.9

165
166
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
System: gcl
Time (sec): 0.181
Amplitude: 1.09
Step response after adding 583.9 gain
Note overshoot% = 0.09 = 9%
Gain Adjustment using Root Locus
The root-locus can be used to determine
the value of the loop gain , which results in
a satisfactory closed-loop behavior.

Remember very high gain leads to
instability.
167
168
In general, the open-loop transfer
function is given by
The characteristic equation of the closed-
loop transfer function is

1 + K.G(s).H(s) = 0

Therefore
1 = -K.G(s).H(s) then

169
170
it follows that for a point in the s-plane to
be in the root- locus when 0 < K < it
must satisfy the following two conditions
171
And

E angles of zeros of G(s).H(s) - E angles
of poles of G(s).H(s) = r(180)
Where r = +1,3,.

172
173
Root-Locus for Gain
adjustment
1. Max (marginal) gain determination

Adding gain K to remove the SSE should
be done carefully.

R.L is useful in finding the suitable gain
that makes the Transient Response of the
C.L acceptable.
174
Assume G(s) = 1/[(s+1)(s+2)]

G(s) = 1/[(s
2
+ 3s + 2)]

Check the C.L step Response.
Check the C. L R.L

175
176
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
C.L Response of G(s) with K =1
Has got about 0.7 SSE (very high)
Increasing K will reduce the C.L SSE but will get the
Transient worse.
177
-1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
Root Locus
Real Axis
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
x
i
s
Means whatever was the value of K the system will never be
Unstable, but what about the transient?
Will get worse when we increase the gain k to reduce the SSE.
Now assume we injected k= 200 to solve
the problem of SSE.

Using static position error for this system
will give k=100 to have 1% (0.01) SSE.

0.01= 1/(1 + Kp) from which Kp=100
178
To have 0.5% SSE Kp= 200
The SSE will be reduced but there may
be bad transient response.

So the solution of removing the SSE by
adding an amplifier gain K is not a perfect
solution.
179
180
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
System: gl
Final Value: 0.99
With gain K = 200 SSE may be solved but the transient is
worse
Adding a Pole at origin
A pole at origin means 1/s must be
inserted in cascade with G(s).

But what is the max gain that can be used
with this integral?
Look at the C.L response with added
integrator (with k=1 before adding any
gain)

181
182
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
System: ggcl
Final Value: 1
C.L response after adding a pole at the origin with k=1
but look at the Root-Locus (also Ts is too late)
183
Root Locus
Real Axis
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
x
i
s
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
System: ggcl
Gain: 5.03
Pole: 0.0027 + 1.42i
Damping: -0.00191
Overshoot (%): 101
Frequency (rad/sec): 1.42
It is clear that the max gain =5 after that any
increase of k will get the C.L system unstable.
184
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
System: ggcl
Final Value: 1
C.L response with an integrator and k=5
To show that k=5 is marginal.
2. RL for conditioned K finding
zeta condition
The procedure for finding K is:
1/ Construct an accurate root-locus plot.
2/ For a given draw a line from origin at
angle u = cos
-1
measured from negative
real axis (from left to right- clockwisw) .
3/ The desired closed-loop pole S1 is at
the intersection of this line and the root-
locus.
185
4/ Estimate the vector lengths from S1 to
poles and zeros and apply the magnitude
criterion as given to find K.

186
Root Locus Example2
The open-loop transfer function of a
control system is given by

KGH(s) = k
s(s+1)(s+4)
Obtain K such that the damping ratio of
the closed-loop poles will be equal to 0.6

187
Solution
1/ The Root-Locus for the O.L TF is
shown (with k=1).
For = 0.6 so u = cos
-1
0.6 = 53.13

2/ The line drawn at this angle intersects
the root-locus at S1 = -0.42+j0.56
3/Now make a line from this point to every
pole and zero (vectors lengths)

188
189
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
0.6
0.6
1
System: sys
Gain: 2.05
Pole: -0.418 + 0.56i
Damping: 0.598
Overshoot (%): 9.62
Frequency (rad/sec): 0.699
Root Locus
Real Axis
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
x
i
s
4/ then K = (3.66)(0.8)(0.7) = 2.05
(when you click on the intersection point k will be given)

So the compensated closed loop will be

C(s) = 2.05
R(s) s
3
+5s
2
+ 4s + 2.05
190
To obtain the C.L step response and time-
domain specifications, we use the following
commands.
numc=2.05;
denc=[1 5 4 2.05];
T=tf(numc, denc)
ltiview('step', T) % chance for changing figure
191
192
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 5 10 15
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
System: g
Peak amplitude: 1.09
Overshoot (%): 9.28
At time (sec): 5.89
Step Response of the C. L
193
Example
Root Locus
P*I*D compensator







i/ Check the response and Root Locus of CL
system.
Ii/ Use a suitable P*I*D compensator then check
again
1
(s+1)(s+2)(s+10)

-
Uncompensated C.L
For C.L
G=tf([1],[1 13 32 21 ])
Rlocus(g)
Step(g)

194
195
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
Root Locus
Real Axis
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
x
i
s
Uncompensated C.L
Max Gain =380
196
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
0.045
0.05
Uncompensated CL Response
197
Solution
The CL response for a unit step will give
Ts = 4.37 , Tr=2.44 and
ss = 0.047 (very poor)

A block of P*I*D compensator must be
added in cascade to improve the system.

Integral only as compensator
Now adding an integral only as
compensator in cascade with the plant will
solve the problem of the steady-state but
may get the transient worse.
Multiply the open-loop with 1/s

G=tf([1],[1 13 32 20 0])
Gcl=feedback(g,1)
198
Gcl =
1
-------------------------------------------
s^4 + 13 s^3 + 32 s^2 + 20 s + 1

Then check step response

199
200
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
CL Response of integral only solved
the SSE but the transient is worse
201
1
(s+1)(s+2)(s+10)

K(s+a)
s
PID Compensated System
A block of P*I*D compensator must be added in
cascade to improve the system.
202
Take k=1 , a=0.1 and check the CL
response and Root Locus

Why Root Locus?
To see that the new compensated RL will
pass the same points and still improve the
system (Ts, Tr,)
Gc = (S+0.1)/S
Gc=tf([1 0.1],[1 0])
Gc is cascaded with g
ggc= series(g,gc)
And the C.L is
ggcl= feedback(ggc,1)
= s + 0.1
----------------------------------------------
s^4 + 13 s^3 + 32 s^2 + 21 s + 0.1
203
204
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
C.L step response with k=1 , a= 0.1
Notice the worse Ts, Tr.
205
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
Root Locus
Real Axis
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
x
i
s
Root locus for ggcl when gc has k=1 , a=0.1
Notice the same path for system g.
Thus PID compensator doesn't change the system root locus
path (which is required)
Now we have to improve the step
response Ts, Tr, .

We know that adding the zero improve the
response by shifting the root locus to the
left, so we choose z=1 instead of 0.1 and
check the step response and root locus
again.
206
Gc= (s+1)/s
And ggc=
s + 1
------------------------------------
s^4 + 13 s^3 + 32 s^2 + 20 s
The C.L is ggcl =
s + 1
--------------------------------------------
s^4 + 13 s^3 + 32 s^2 + 21 s + 1

207
208
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Step response for ggcl with k=1 and a=1 instead of 0.1
Note the improvement of Ts and Tr compared with
a=0.1 (zero value)
209
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
Root Locus
Real Axis
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
x
i
s
Root locus for ggcl with k=1 and a=1 instead of 0.1
The PID compensator eliminate the SSE
and has a little improvement on the
transient response.

Try PD with removing the origin pole (1/s)
which result in PD only ( k(s+a))
Take a=1
210
One of the main benefits of the root locus
is that it gives you the cross-point gain

Take k = 130
Then ggcl =
130 s + 130
---------------------------------
s^3 + 13 s^2 + 162 s + 150
211
212
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
System: ggcl
Final Value: 0.867
Step response for k=130, then a=130
Note the strong improvement on Ts, and Tr, but still there is a SSE
213
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
System: ggcl
Gain: 0
Pole: -6 + 10.7i
Damping: 0.49
Overshoot (%): 17.1
Frequency (rad/sec): 12.2
System: ggcl
Gain: 3.32
Pole: -6 - 23.4i
Damping: 0.249
Overshoot (%): 44.6
Frequency (rad/sec): 24.1
Root Locus
Real Axis
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

A
x
i
s
C.L Root locus for k=a=130
Note that adding any gain will keep the system stable but
overshoot will be increased since damping will decrease.
For PD compensator (k(s+a)) you can take
k larger than 130 and check the response
until you reach your criteria.

(try k=250, 500, 750,1000)

214
Benefits of Root Locus in design
1. Shows the cross-point gain value.
2. shows if there is unlimited gain increase
when path goes vertically.
3. finds the gain k required for a given
damping ratio.
4.Shows the effect of adding poles or
zeros on the system behaviour. (prove)
5. shows the contour when changing more
than one parameter (k + another variable)
215
Nichols Plot
Nichols Plot gives another way to depict
frequency response information

by plotting the magnitude versus phase
curve in the semi logarithmic scale (for w
from zero to infinity).

Nichols chart can be generated using the
nichols(G) function for the MATLAB
transfer function G.
216
M circles and Nichols Chart
Consider G(jw) forward T.F
M is the magnitude of the C.L with unity
feedback [H(jw) = 1]

so M= G(jw)/[1+G(jw)]

and G(jw) is complex = X+jy
217
M circle is developed as:
Let G( j)=X+jY, where X is the and
Y the imaginary

Then M =
218
Example
Consider a unity feedback system with
open-loop transfer function



To produce a Nichols chart for the given
system, with the closed-loop dB M-
contours superimposed, we use:
219
G=tf([10],[1 5 0])
Nichols(G);
Ngrid;


220
Using Defined Parameters
s = tf('s');
G = 45/(s*(s+5));
w = 0.5:50;
nichols(G,w);
ngrid;

The following plot appears
221
222
-360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
6 dB
3 dB
1 dB
0.5 dB
0.25 dB
0 dB
-1 dB
-3 dB
-6 dB
-12 dB
-20 dB
-40 dB
Nichols Chart
Open-Loop Phase (deg)
O
p
e
n
-
L
o
o
p

G
a
i
n

(
d
B
)