Chapter One

Introduction to Rock
Mechanics and Geological fundamentals

Contents of Chapter One

1.1 The subject matter of Rock Mechanics 1.1.1 Definition of Rock Mechanics

1.1.2 Scope of Rock Mechanics

1.1.3 Problems of Rock Mechanics 1.1.4 Tasks of Rock Mechanics 1.2 Geological fundamentals in Rock Mechanics 1.2.1 Minerals

1.2.2 Rock and Rock Cycle

1.2.3 Formation of rocks and their geological classification

1.2.4 Primary geological structures of rocks

1.1 The subject matter of Rock Mechanics

1.1.1 What is Rock Mechanics?

Rock mechanics
is applied science studies the behaviour of rocks (such as stress, strain and movement in rocks) under forces imposed upon them. Forces can be natural, artificial, static or dynamic. studies rocks found in situ or in laboratory

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In rock mechanics rocks can be either solid or

with cracks or fractures. Rocks without fractures are called solid rock or intact rock or rock material. Rocks with fractures are called rock mass. The fracture or crack in the rock is called discontinuity.

1.1.2 Scope of Rock Mechanics

Engineering structures that involve rock mechanics to a significant degree are: Surface structures e.g. Bridges, tall buildings, surface power houses and dams Transportation routes e.g. High ways, railways, canals, and pipelines, penstock Surface excavations for other purposes e.g. Quarries, mine pit, spillways Dry under ground excavation e.g. Underground mines, tunnels and under ground chamber. Energy development e.g. petroleum, geothermal, nuclear power plants, energy storage caverns for oil, water, gases.

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Some areas of rock mechanics application

Activity involving a substantial Rock Mechanics input

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1.1.3 Problems of rock mechanics

Problem areas In rock mechanics are categorized into 3:

(1) Stress transmission problems

Static -Self weight of earth materials -External Dynamic -Earthquake -Vibration

(2) Failure problems

- For rock material failure is brittleness, temporary or elastic deformation -For rock mass failure is ductility, permanent or plastic deformation.

(3) Flow problems

subsidence- vertical sinking

Questions that need solution in rock mechanics

How will rock react when put to mens use?
What is the bearing capacity of rock on surface or at

depths? What is the shear strength of rocks? What is the response of rocks under dynamic / earthquake type loading? What is the modulus of elasticity of rock and how to get it? What are the effects of rock defects (jointing, bedding planes, schistocity, fissures, cavities and other discontinuities) on its strength? What are the mechanisms of failure of rocks?

Some of the problems that occur in construction works are:

Problems of bearing capacity of rocks arise from heavy constructions like skyscraper building or concrete gravity dam.

Very high stress transmission problem due to are effects under high arced bridges or arced concrete dam.

Flow problems due to huge overburden pressure exposed on deep tunnels and caverns , let solid rock behave like viscous liquid

2.1.4 Typical Rock Mechanics tasks

Planning, design, and construction of project works significantly dependent on the following rock mechanics input:

Evaluation of geological hazards in quantitative terms Selection and preparation of rock materials Evaluation of cuttability or drillability of rocks and design of cutting and drilling tools. Layout and selection of types of structures Analysis of rock deformation Analysis of rock slope stability Supervision and control of blast procedures Design of support system

1.2 Geological fundamentals in Rock Mechanics

1.2.1 Minerals
A Mineral:

is inorganic

is structurally homogeneous solid with definite

crystalline structure has a well-defined regular internal arrangement of its constituent particles has a definite chemical composition which can be expressed by a chemical formula is natural has a definite set of physical properties that are fixed within certain limits.

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A few exceptions to the mineral definition are (1) precious gemstones like diamond can be synthetically produced under controlled laboratory condition. (2) Coal, petroleum etc typical organic substances that are considered as minerals (3) Asphalt, mercury, petroleum natural gas are semisolids, liquids and gas respectively, but they are considered as minerals.

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Atoms => Ions (cations/anions) => Molecules => Crystals/Crystalline solid => Minerals

Groups of Minerals
Native elements-such as gold, silver, copper, iron, platinum,

sulphur, diamond, etc. Sulphates - whose basic unit is (SO4)2-, such as gypsum, barite, etc. Oxides - whose basic unit is O2-, such as magnetite, hematite, etc. Carbonates- whose basic unit is (CO3)2-, such as calcite, dolomite, magnesite, etc. Halides- such as halite, fluorite, sylvite, etc. Sulphides- such as pyrite, galena, sphalerite, etc. Phosphates- whose basic unit is (PO4)3- , such as apatite, etc. Arsenides- such as realgar, orpiment, etc. Silicates- whose basic unit is (SiO4)4-, such as quartz, pyroxene, amphibole, etc.

Common rock forming minerals

Many rocks contain predominantly only one

mineral with a few others being present only in small or accessory amounts. Such common essential minerals that make up the rocks of the earth crust are named as rock forming minerals.

Common Rock-Forming minerals and their chemical composition

Abundance of minerals
In the order of abundance, among different rock

forming minerals, Silicates rank first in the earths crust, Oxides come next, then carbonates, Phosphates, Sulphates etc in greatly reduced amount.

Silicates = Most important rock-forming minerals = Most abundant

Element Abundance (Wt. %) O Si Al Fe Ca Na Mg K Total Others

46.40

28.15

8.23

5.63

4.15

2.36

2.33

2.09

99.34

0.66

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1.2.2 Rock and Rock cycle

What is a rock ?
In geology, rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids. A rock can be monomineralic or polymineralic.

The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock.

In general rocks are of three types, namely, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The scientific study of rocks is called petrology, and petrology is an essential component of geology.

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MONOMINERALIC

POLYMINERALIC

THREE TYPES OF ROCKS

What is a rock cycle?

The 3 groups of rocks, namely igneous,

sedimentary and metamorphic, which occur in nature, give birth one to each other due to different geological process acting on them. This phenomenon is called rock

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1.2.3 Formation of rocks and their geological classification

Figure: Generalized geological and industrial minerals/stones map of Ethiopia

1.2.3.1 Formation of igneous rocks and their geological classification (a) Formation or origin of igneous rocks Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
Igneous rocks are the first formed rocks, which made up the original earths crust. Hence they are called primary rocks. The name Igneous derived the Latin word ignis meaning fire. from

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Igneous rock can be formed either below the surface as intrusive rocks or on the surface as extrusive rocks. The magma can be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks either from mantle or crust. The melting of pre-existing rocks is caused by one or more of three processes:
An increase in temperature, a n increase in pressure, or a change in composition.

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Magma is generated by local heating and melting of rocks within the Earths crust and upper mantle,

mostly at depths between 10 and around 100 km.

Most compositions of rock melt at temperatures of

80012000C.

Melting the mantle makes MAFIC Magma

Melting the crust makes FELSIC Magma

Figure: Magma Creation by Partial Melting

Continued Lava = magma poured to the earths surface

Figure: Molten lava flowing from the small vent

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Figure: Lava flow

Magma: differentiation

(b) Classification of igneous rocks

Igneous rocks are classified according to : mode of occurrence mineralogy/ chemical composition, the geometry of the igneous body.

Classification of igneous rocks based on modes of occurrence

In terms of modes of occurrence, igneous

rocks can be either intrusive or extrusive .

Hypabyssal Hypabyssal

Intrusive Igneous rocks

Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust of the earth, surrounded by pre-existing rock (called country rock). the magma cools slowly, and as a result these rocks are coarse grained.

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There are two types of Intrusive igneous rocks based on their depth of occurrence: Plutonic rocks Hypabyssal rocks

Hypabyssal

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Plutonic rocks: Intrusive Igneous rocks which are formed when magma is trapped deep inside the earth under high temperature and pressure environment. Slow cooling of magma. Coarse in grain size. E.g. Granite Gabbro.

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Hypabbysal rocks: intrusive igneous rocks

which have been formed at shallow depth under moderate temperature and pressure. Such rocks are medium grained. Example: Dolerite.
Eg. Dolerite

Extrusive igneous rock

Igneous rocks which are formed on the surface of earth by out pouring of magma are termed as extrusive igneous rocks Extrusive igneous rocks include both:
lava flow-product rocks (volcanic rocks) and pyroclastic rocks.

Hypaby ssal

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Volcanic rocks: are igneous rocks, which have been formed on
the surface of the earth at rapid rate of cooling. Such rocks are fine grained or glassy matter. Examples of volcanic rocks-lava flow products

Rhyolite

Obsidian

Basalt

Pyroclastic rocks (meaning fire fragmental, also known as volcaniclastic) are volcanic eruption products. Examples of pyroclastic rocks

Volcanic ash (Tephra)

Volcanic tuff

Pumice

Scoria

volcanic ash fall and tuff (Meki

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Figure: Volcanic eruption very much volatiles

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Figure: Volcanic eruption much volatiles/gases

Summary of classification of igneous rocks on their mode of Occurrence

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Chemical or Mineralogical classification of igneous rocks (mainly based on silica SiO2)
Felsic or acidic igneous rocks containing a high silica content, greater than 65% SiO2(examples granite and rhyolite) Intermediate igneous rocks containing between 55 65% SiO2 (example andesite and dacite) Mafic or basic igneous rocks have low silica 45 - 55% and typically high iron - magnesium content (example gabbro and basalt) Ultramafic or ultrabasic igneous rocks with less than 45% silica. (example periodotite)

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Composition Felsic (Acidic) >65 Intermediate 55-65 Mafic (Basic) 45-55 Ultra mafic (Ultra basic) <45

SiO2%

Rock types
Intrusive Extrusive (Volcanic)

Granite Diorite

Gabbro

Peridotite

Rhyolite Andesite Basalt

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Gabbro

Diorite

Granite

Basalt

Andesite

Rhyolite

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Peridotite

Textural and chemical classification of igneous rocks

Summary of classification of igneous rocks based on mode of occurrence and silica percentage

Classification based on the geometry or forms of igneous rocks

Batholiths: A large irregularly shaped plutonic that cuts across the layering of the rock into which it intrudes, exceeds 1000 km long ,250 km wide. Stock: A smaller batholiths, only 10 km in maximum dimension. Dike: Magma is squeezed into across-cutting fracture and solidified to form a dike. Sill: Magma intrudes between two layers to form a sill. Laccoliths: a sill that has caused overlying rock to bulge upward into a mushroom-like shape. Xenoliths : country rock mass surrounded by intrusive rocks

Figure: forms of igneous rocks

Forms of intrusive rocks

1.2.3.2 Formation and geological classification of sedimentary rocks

(a) Formation of sedimentary rocks
Formation of sedimentary rocks involves the following 3 stages of processes:

Weathering and erosion Deposition Lithification

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Weathering Weathering is the natural decay and breakdown of rock, or drift, that is in contact with air and water; generally to depths of less than 10 m.

No removal of decayed or broken pieces of rocks (particles) or transportation is involved.

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Types of weathering
1. 2.

Physical (Mechanical) weathering Chemical weathering

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Depth of weathering Scale and depth of weathering depends on the time scale, the rock type and the present and past climates. Rocks only exposed for 10,000 years (i.e. since last glaciation) are less deeply weathered than those exposed for a million years in unglaciated areas. Shales, porous sandstones and weak limestone weather to greater depths than do granites and compact metamorphic rocks. Deepest weathering occurs in regions of climatic extremes, either with periglacial frost action or beneath equatorial rainforest.

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Weathering grade and rock properties

Erosion
Physical and chemical breakdown of rocks at or near the surface with subsequent removal causes surface lowering:

Removal or transportation by river, wind, glaciers or sea water.

Deposition
Deposition is the process of accumulation or settling of sediments when the energy level of the moving or transporting agent is low or negligible. Deposition is also called Sedimentation.

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Lithification: Lithification is the processes by which a weak, loose sediment is changed into a stronger sedimentary rock. The processes of lithification is also known as diagenesis. Three main processes of lithification:

Cementation Recrystallization Compaction/consolidation

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Cementation : The filling of the inter granular pore spaces by deposition of a mineral cement brought in by circulating groundwater. Rock strength is largely dependant on the type of cement, which may be silica (strongest), iron oxides, calcite or clay (weakest). The dominant process in sandstones. Recrystallization: Small scale solution and redeposition of mineral, so that some grains become smaller and some larger. The dominant process in limestones. Compaction: Restructuring and change of grain packing, with decrease in volume, due to burial pressure, with consequent reduction of porosity as water is squeezed out. Increase in strength is due to more grain to grain contact. The dominant process in clays. Consolidation: generally refers to the increase in strength in clays, due to their restructuring, improved packing, loss of water and reduced porosity caused by compaction under load.

(b) Geological classification of sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are classified into two on the basis of their

mode of formation. These are: 1. Clastic (detrital) rocks 2. Non-clastic (non-detrital) rocks
Clastic rocks: These are rocks formed from accumulation of broken rock or fragments.

Non-Clastic rocks: are formed from accumulation of chemically precipitated or organically derived matter.

Clastic sedimentary rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks divided into 3 sub groups based on their average grain size of particles or clasts. These are: Rudites Arenites Lutites

Sediment grain size scale by Udden-Wentworth

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Rock group Grain size > 2mm
Sediment Rock example Composition & other features
Conglomerate

Rudite or Rudaceous rocks

Boulders, cobbles, pebbles, & granules

Rounded heterogeneous rock fragments and poorly cemented

Sedimentary breccia

Angular heterogeneous rock fragments and poorly cemented

Examples of Rudites
Conglomerate Sedimentary breccia

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Rock group

Grain size

Sediment

Rock example Composition & other features

Siliceous Sandstone

0.06 2mm
Arenite or Aranaceous rocks

Sand

Made of coarse sand grains of quartz bound by quartz cement

Argillaceous Sandstone

Made of fine sand grains

Example of arenite
Sandstone

sandstone

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Rock group

Grain size

Sediment

Rock example Composition & other features

Siltstone

<0.06mm Silt Lutites or Argillaceous rocks

0.0000150.06mm Clay <0.00001 5mm

Very fine grained rock, composed of quartz, feldspar Extremely fine grained rock, composed of quartze and clay minerals

Mudstone/shal e

Summary of classification of clastic sedimentary rocks

Example of lutite
Siltstone

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Non Clastic sedimentary rocks divided into 2 major groups (a) Chemically formed (b)Organically formed Chemically formed non-clastic sedimentary rocks
Rock group Rock type Carbonate Siliceous
Chemically formed rock

Non clastic sedimentary rocks

Rock examples Limestone Chert Iron stone Rock gypsum Rock salt

Composition Calcite (CaCO3) Silica (SiO2)

FeCO3, Iron oxides

Ferruginous Rock gypsum Evaporites

Gypsum a crystalline aggregate of salt grains, i.e., Halite (NaCl)

Examples of chemically formed rocks

Ironstone

Chert

Rock salt

Limestone

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Organically formed Non Clastic sedimentary rocks

Rock group Rock type Biochemical rocks Organically formed rock Rock examples Coquina Composition Weak porous rock consisting of lightly cemented shells and shell fragments. Parts of invertebrate organisms such as mollusks, crinoids, and corals cemented limestone with calcium carbonate Composed of highly altered plant remains and varying amounts of clay, varying in color from brown to black.

Fossilifereous limestone

Organic rock

Coal

Summary of non-clastic sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks and their depositional environment

Environment of deposition

Depositional Environments

Depositional Environments

Depositional Environments

Depositional Environments

Depositional Environments

Depositional Environments

Depositional Environments

Depositional Environments

Depositional Environments

Depositional Environments

1.2.3.3 Formation and geological classification of Metamorphic rocks (a) Origin of metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks
When rocks are baked by heat of molten magma or

squeezed by the movements of huge tectonic plates or by the pressure of overlying thick succession of rocks

They are altered or changed beyond their recognition i.e. change in Chemical composition, texture and structure

Metamorphic rocks

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The process of metamorphism occurs because of the effects of
High temperature High pressure Chemically active fluids

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Pressure
UNIFORM PRESSURE DIRECT or Differential PRESSURE

- increases with depth due to increase in overburden.

- increases with depth upto some

extent, effective in the upper part of the crust. - acts in all direction and affects only on solids resulting into deformation of shape and change in mineral composition - high temperature is not always associated. to depth factor) - Stress- due to tectonic forces

- acts vertically downwards and affects the volume of both liquid & solids. high temperature is also associated with (due to depth factor)

- Lithostatic pressure- due to overburden

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Temperature
The source of temperature is either from magma or due to the

depth factor
Metamorphism usually result into change in mineral composition

and texture of rocks (Igneous and Sedimentary) which are subjected to temperature. > 1000 C and pressure > 1000s Mpa.

Low-grade metamorphism:
Occurs at about 1000 C to 5000 C.

High-grade metamorphism:
Occurs at > 5000 C

Grade of metamorphism

Metamorphic grades and facies

(b) Geological classification of metamorphic rocks

These rocks are classified based on the presence or absence of foliation. The term foliation refers the parallelism of inequidimensional (i.e. platy and prismatic) minerals that develop under the influence of pressure. That is the series of parallel layers. Metamorphic rocks are classified into two on the basis of foliation. These are: 1. Foliated metamorphic rocks. 2. None-foliated metamorphic rocks. 1. Foliated metamorphic rocks: These rocks show foliation with in them. 2. Massive or non-foliated metamorphic rocks: This group includes rocks without foliation.

Foliation: any planar fabric element Lineation: any linear fabric elements

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Environment of metamorphism

Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks

Slate

Schist

Phyllite

Gneiss

Examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks

Horfels

Marble

Quartzite

Metamorphism of igneous rocks

If the parent rock is igneous rock, the metamorphism product is called orthometamorhic rock

Metamorphism of sedimentary rocks

If the parent rock is sedimentary rock, the metamorphism product is called parametamorhic rock

1.2.4 Primary geological structures of rocks

Geometric features developed during formation of a rock body Microscopic to mountain scale Formed in sedimentary or igneous environments Provide clues about :
environment of rock formation the strength or weakness of rocks distinguishing features of rock group the mode of origin of rocks

1.2.4.1 Primary geological structures in igneous rocks

The common primary geological structures in igneous are:

a) b) c) d) e)

Flow structure Pillow structure Vesicular structure and amygdaloidal structure Columnar structure Sheet structure

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(a) Flow structure
Linear and nearly parallel features occurring in volcanic rocks which develop as a consequence of lava flow. Pahoehoe lava

Roppy basalt

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Flow structure in rhyolite

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(b) Pillow structure in this structure, the volcanic igneous body appears as a pile of numerous overlapping pillows or sacks.
The pillows are generally interconnected and have vesicular and glassy tops.

Pillowed Basalts
Submarine Eruptions

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Out crop of pillow basalt

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(c) Columnar structure In this structure, the volcanic igneous rocks appears to be made of numerous parallel polygonal prismatic columns bundled together. This is the result of the contraction of lava during cooling.

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(d) Vesicular structure This structure is due to the porous nature, commonly observed in volcanic rocks. The vesicles or the pores are formed as the gases escape from the rock during lava solidification.

Vesicular structure in basalt

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(e) Amygdaloidal structure If the vesicles are filled by secondary infillings, such infillings are amygdales. Rocks having amygdales are said to have amygdaloidal structure

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(f) Sheet structure In this structure, the rocks appear to be made up of a number of sheets, because of the development of of nearly horizontal cracks. This is the effect of erosion over rocks formed at depth. Example sheet structure in granite

1.2.4.2 Primary geological structures of igneous rocks

Primary geological structures of sedimentary rocks

are:
a) b) c) d) e) f)

Stratification Lamination Graded bedding Current bedding Ripple marks Mud cracks

(a) Stratification

Figure: Bedding or Stratification. (=Layering. Each layer 1cm.)

Single layer = stratum, more than one layer = strata

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Fig: Stratification

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Stratification

(b) Lamination

Fig: Lamination (Layering. Each layer <1cm.) Single layer-Lamellae. Many layers-Lamella.

(c) Graded bedding

Fig: Graded bedding. (The finest grain at the top and the coarsest grain at the bottom by gradual increase in grain size down to the bottom of each bed or layer )

Fig: Graded bedding

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Graded bedding

(e) Cross bedding

One bed set is at angle to another bed set

(f) Mud crack

Figure: Mud crack

(g) Ripple marks

Figure: Ripple marks

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Figure: Ripple marks

1.2.4.3 Primary geological structures of metamorphic rocks

Common primary geological structures of metamorphic rocks are:
a) b) c) d)

Slate cleavage Schistose structure Gneissose structure Cataclastic structure

(a) Slatey Cleavage

The property of a rock to split along a regular set of sub-parallel, closely-spaced planes any type of foliation in which platy minerals are aligned (parallel) but are too fine grained to see without a microscope

Slatey cleavage

(b) Schistosity
A preferred orientation of mineral grains or grain aggregates produced by metamorphic processes Aligned minerals are coarse grained enough to see with the unaided eye

The orientation is generally planar.

(c) Gneissose structure

Segregated into dark and white layers by metamorphic processes Gneissose rocks usually have visible grains

Gneissose structure

(d) Fault breccia