Structure of English

LET Review for 2011

ALICE M. KARAAN Former Head, Department of English

Basic sentence patterns

N1 be N1 N be Adj N be UW N InV N1 TrV N2 N1 TrV N2 N3 N1 TrV N2 N2

VERBS

Semantic/notional definition
Denotes an action or state of being

Progresssive, dynamic and stative verbs

The progressive forms of a verb indicate that

something is happening or was happening or will be happening Dynamic verbs are verbs that show qualities capable of change. Stative verbs show qualities not capable of change The progressive forms occur only with dynamic verbs.

Examples of dynamic and stative verbs

Dynamic Activity verbs: ask, eat, play, throw Process verbs: change, grow, deteriorate Verbs of bodily sensation: ache, feel, hurts Stative Verb of inert perception or cognition: hear, prefer, believe Relational verbs: be, equal, need, own

Examples
They swim in the warm pool every day. The baby appears healthy.
The temperature in Baguio City is colder than Tagaytay.

Other distinctions
Verb plan, begins, ran
seen
Verb phrase will be planning, has

Auxiliary (helping) and main verb

Did you join the torch parade? The club members are preparing for the annual fair. My mother has left for a job abroad.

Finite and non-finite verbs

They have formed three teams to search for the jewels taken from the vault last night.
Reading is a worthwhile activity.

Ways of identifying verbs: form

Inflectional suffixes -s 3rd person sg. present tense -ed simple past -en past participle -ing present participle
Derivational affixes

bathe, beautify, colonize, lengthen, strive ripen, save, solemnize, solidify

Position
The law enforcers are cautious. They work efficiently. They implement their plans.
Usually follow nouns and may be followed in turn by adverbs, adjectives, and other nouns.

Types of verbs
Linking verbs: what follows the verb
relates back to the subject

We are teachers. (N1 LV N1) We become molders of minds. The children seem scared. (N LV Adj)

Types of verbs
Intransitive verbs: take no following
object

The team won. (N IV)

Transitive verbs: require an object

My father raises rabbits. (N1 TV N2)

Types of verbs
Prepositional verbs: require a
I glanced at the mirror.
prepositional phrase to be complete

Types of transitive verbs

Monotransitive: takes one object (direct
object)

My father raises rabbits. (N1 TV N2)

Types of transitive verbs

Ditransitive : takes two objects (direct and
indirect)

The postman delivered a package to my sister. (N1 TV N2 N3) The postman gave my sister a package.
(N1 TV N3 N2)

Types of transitive verbs

Complex transitive: takes two objects,
but what follows the direct object relates back to it

The class elected Jose their representative. (N1 TV N2 N2)

Regular verbs forms: unmarked

Simple present
work/s dance/s

Simple past
worked danced

Past participle
worked danced

Present participle
working dancing

Irregular verb forms: marked

Simple present break/s
come/s

Simple past broke

came

Past participle broken

come

Present participle breaking

coming

find/s
hit/s

found
hit

found
hit

finding
hitting

Tense and aspect

1. Tense gives information about the time when an event takes place. Present / Past / Future

2.

Aspect gives information on completion and duration of an event.

Simple / Progressive / Perfect / Perfect progressive

Meaning of the aspects

1. Simple aspect
= complete; unchanging nature; immediate factuality/strong prediction

2. Perfect aspect
= prior/before

3. Progressive aspect
= incomplete; changing

Verb tense and aspect forms

Simple Perfect
Progressive

Perfect Prog.

-s /

have en

be ing

have en + be -ing
has/have been working has/have been writing

Present

work/works has/have worked

is/are working

write/writes has/have written

is/are writing

Verb tense and aspect forms

Simple Perfect Progressive Perfect Progressive

Past

worked

had worked

was/were working
was/were writing

had been working

had been writing

wrote
Future

had written

will/shall will/shall will/shall will/shall work have worked be working have been working will/shall will/shall will/shall will/shall write have written be writing have been writing

Present tense/Present habitual

Not usually used to describe present time Describes activities and states which are
generally and universally true The tense for description, definition, and statements of general truth Used for repeated habitual actions Common time markers: always, usually,

often, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely, hardly ever, never.

He walks to school every day. Water freezes at 0 degrees centigrade. There is a large store at the corner. If Alan passes the bar exam, he will practice law.

habitual action in the present general timeless truth a state/condition subordinate clause of conditional

I have a meeting next week.

future

Now I add three eggs to present action in the mixture. demonstration/

procedure

So he stands up on the narration - historical boat and waves his present hands to catch our attention.

The simple past tense

1. Most basic use: To describe one completed
action in the past

Common time markers:

- yesterday and its combinations (yesterday morning) - combinations with last (last night) - combinations with ago (two days ago) - specific points in time with the prepositions in, on, and at (in 1964, on Monday, at 9:15)

Simple past
2. A series of verbs in the past tense is often used to tell about events that happen quickly, one right after the other

Markers of chronological sequence to tell

the order of actions:

first, second, almost immediately, before, after, then, next, finally

Simple past
3. Can also describe a period of time in the past, which began and ended in the past.

Time markers which show length of the

time period:

for (for 120 million years) from to (from 120 million years to 50
million years ago)

Examples of simple past tense

My sister graduated from college in 1964. My friend submitted his term paper yesterday. It rained almost every day last month. I stayed in Cambodia for seven years.
remote past recent past habitual action in the past duration that applied in the past

Did you want to sit down and stay awhile?

social distancing

Past habitual: used to

Can describe a state or an activity which lasted for a
period of time

For many years, camels used to be the only form of transportation in the desert.

Can also describe repeated, habitual actions for a period

of time in the past

He used to ride horses every day before he sold them all.

Statements with used to are no longer true of the

present.

The simple future tense with will

Describes actions, activities, and states in the
future.

Common time markers:

Combinations - with next (next year) - with in (in two days, in the future) - with from now (ten years from now, six weeks from now)

Examples of the simple future tense

Joel will take the board definite future time exam next month.
After this month, I will take a public transport to and from school. If you leave, youll be sorry.
future habitual action

in the main clause [result] of future conditionals

The simple future tense with be + going to + verb

Future predictions like will, but more informal
Im going to be 66 next year.

Future intentions (based on prior decision)

Jose and Nena are going to get married in December.

Future certainty based on current condition or

present evidence

Rica is going to have a baby.

The present perfect tense

1. An action has been completed before the
present time. This action has an effect on the present situation.

Common time markers: already, not yet, and

just My brothers have just returned from a basketball game.

Present perfect
2. Shows an activity or a state that has continued for a period of time, from a point in the past until the present. The action is not completed.

They have visited each other every month for 15 years.

Time markers:
- for - since (for many years) (since they were children)

Examples of the present perfect tense

I have been a teacher since 1964. I have [already] read that book.
Jean has just finished her homework.
began at a prior point in time and continues to the present action occurring at an unspecified prior time
very recently completed action

The past perfect tense

1. Shows an action which was completed before a second
action/time in the past. One point in time serves as a reference point. Everything that comes before it is in the past perfect tense.

The ship had already received six ice warnings on its radio [when it struck the iceberg]. The passengers had not yet received their lifeboat numbers, nor had they practiced lifeboat drills [before the accident]. [When the Titanic hit the iceberg], the radio officer on the Californian had just gone to bed.

Past perfect
2. May be used to describe an activity or a state over a period of time

Common time markers show both the length of

time (for an hour, up to that time, the whole time) and the time of the second action in the past (when the doctor came)

The family had waited for an hour [when the doctor came].

Past perfect
3. May be used to show habitual or repeated action in a time period (every day for three

days, from time to time)

Marios mother had given him medicine every day for three days [before she brought him to the hospital].

Examples of the past perfect tense

He had left before I could offer him a ride. If Sally had studied harder, she would have passed the exam.
completed in the past prior to some other past action imaginative conditional in the subordinate clause [referring to the past]

The future perfect tense

1.To show a completed action which happens before a second action in the future. The future perfect is used with the action that happens first.

The other action is often introduced by a time

words such as when, by the time, or before and takes a present tense.

The mechanics will have checked the racing car [when it leaves the pit].

Future perfect
2. Can describe a state, an activity, or a period of
time before a second action in the future. Usually two time markers appear in the sentences: one for the length of time, and one for the end point.

He will have run for three hours (duration) by the time he finishes. (endpoint)

Examples of the future perfect tense

I will have finished this review by 12 oclock.
future action completed prior to a specific future action

The Albas will have state that will be married before their completed in the future graduation in June next year

prior to some other future time/event

The present progressive tense

Describes present time. It is used for actions which are Time markers are not always used. The tense is Other time markers for present time:
happening in the present and for a period of time which includes the present.
understood to mean right now or a period of time including right now. - combinations with -- this (this week, this term, this year) -- these (these days) - today - tonight

Present progressive
The girl is holding a kite. Shes running as fast as she can, and the kite is rising into the air. While running, shes letting out string.

Examples of present progressive tense

The examinees are reviewing right now. Hes studying geology in Japan. She is living with her cousin. The bird is hopping in the yard. My uncles are coming tomorrow. Ella is becoming more and more like her mother.
activity in progress extended present; action will end temporary situation iteration/repetition

future; event is planned

change in progress

The past progressive tense

Rarely used by itself. Rather used to describe what was taking place
when another activity happened in the past. continuous or in the past tense.

Usually joined to another clause in the past

She was watching TV, while her brothers were playing chess. The children were playing in the yard when their parents arrived.

Examples of the past progressive tense

He was watching TV at 12 in progress at a specific last night. point of time in the

past
Karen was washing her hair when the phone rang.

past action simultaneous with another event stated in the past

The future progressive tense

Generally used to set up a background activity that is in
progress when another action takes place.

She will be cooking in the kitchen, when her children arrives from school.

When is often used to introduce another future action at

a specific point in time.

Often used with specific time markers (e.g., clock time)

to tell what a person will be doing in the future. Combination with: - at (at 5:00) - next (next year) - in (in two days)

Examples of the future progressive tense

He will be taking a test at 8:00 tomorrow morning.
Cora will be working on her thesis for the next two years
action in progress at a specific time in future

duration of some specific future time

Uses of the present perfect progressive

Bert has been going out with Jam. I have been reading that book.
The students have been getting better and better.
habit started in the past, continues up to the present [and possibly into the future]) an action in progress that is not yet completed
state that changes over time

Uses of the past perfect progressive

Carol had been action taking place over working hard, so her a period of time in the doctor told her to take a past prior to some other vacation. past event) We had been planning past action in progress to vacation in that place, interrupted by a more but changed our minds recent past action) after receiving the scary news.

Uses of the future perfect progressive

(durative or habitual action taking place in

the present and will continue into the future up until or through a specific time)

He will have been keeping a diary for 10 years next time.

Subject-Verb Agreement
1. 2. Our school team has won all its games. Our school team have won all their games. No news is good news. Physics is a difficult subject. Wales is a lovely to visit. Good Expectations was written by Dickens. The Ten Commandments is a wonderful movie.

3.

4.

A pair of trousers is on the sofa. Bens trousers are on the sofa.

Subject-Verb Agreement
5. A number of students have dropped the course. The number of students in this school is 2,000.
One half of the toxic waste has escaped. Fifty percent of the toxic waste has escaped. Two thirds of the students are satisfied with the class. Sixty percent of the students are satisfied with the class.

6.

Subject-Verb Agreement
7. The great majority is helpless. A majority of my friends advise it. The majority was/were determined to press its/their victory.

8. 1,000 kilometers is long distance. 2 million dollars is a lot of money. 5 years is long time to be away from home. (one entity)

Subject-Verb Agreement
9. 10 miles are to be added to this freeway next year. 20 pesos are on the table in the kitchen. 3 years are missing from this set of calendars. (more than one entity) 10. One plus one is/equals two. (1 + 1 = 2) Four minus two is/equals two. Two times two is/equals four. Ten divided two is/equals five. (perceived as a single numerical entity on both sides of the entity)

Subject-Verb Agreement
11. A lot of nonsense was published about that incident. A lot of people were present when it happened. None of the toxic waste has escaped. None of the negotiations is likely to succeed. (none = one) None of the boys are here. (informal)

12.

All (of) the water is polluted. All (of) (the) students have arrived.

Subject-Verb Agreement
13. One of my friends is here. Each of my friends is here. Every one of my friends is here.

14.

Every man, woman, and child needs love. Each book and magazine is listed in the card catalogue. Each and every student has a textbook

Subject-Verb Agreement
15. The book on political parties is interesting. My dog, as well as my cats, likes cat food. The book that I got from my parents is interesting. 16. Growing flowers is her hobby.

Subject-Verb Agreement
17. The ideas in that book are interesting. The pens that I bought at the bookstore were expensive.

18.

There is a book on the shelf. There are no books on the shelf. Theres some books on the shelf. (informal)

Subject-Verb Agreement
19. The United States is big. The Philippines consists of more than 7,000 islands. The United Nations has its headquarters in New York City.

Subject-Verb Agreement
20.
21.

English is spoken in many countries. Chinese is his native language.

The English drink tea. The Chinese have an interesting history. The poor have many problems. The rich get richer.

Subject-Verb Agreement
22. These people are from Canada. The police have them called. Cattle are domestic animals.

23. Either my sister or my brothers are going to do it. Either my brothers or my sister is going to do it.

Subject-Verb Agreement
24. Ella is one of those rare individuals who have finished their M.A. Neither of them is available to speak right now. Either of us is capable of doing the job.

25.

Auxiliary/Helping verbs
Modal
- true modals - phrasal modals

Non-modal
- be: - have: - do:

am, is, are, was, were, will be has, have, had do, does, did

These forms serve as operator verbs.

Operator verbs
1. Negative

My father will not/wont approve your marriage proposal.

2. Yes-no questions

Will your father approve your marriage proposal.

3. Tag questions

Your father will approve your marriage proposal, wont he?

Non-modal auxiliaries
1. The graduates are reviewing for the LET.
2. They have learned a lot while in college. 3. Do they feel confident of passing the exam?

MODALS AND PHRASAL MODALS

Modals and Phrasal Modals

True Modals can, could will, shall must should, ought to would (= past habit) Phrasal Modals be able to be going to, be about to have to, have got to be to, be supposed to used to

may, might

be allowed to, be permitted to

Distinguishing Characteristics
True Modals Do not inflect Phrasal Modals Inflect

can pass
Lack tense and S-V agreement

am/is/are able to pass

S-V agreement rule applies

We/He can pass the test.

No infinitive marker to before the main verb

He is able/We are able to pass the test.

Infinitive marker to precedes the main verb

must study hard

has/have/had to study hard

Meanings of Modals: Logical

Probability
Logical probability typically deals with the speaker making an inference or prediction.

Certainty Possibility
That must be Rafa.
It couldnt be Mario. It may rain tomorrow.

Probability

Social Functions of Modals

Making requests
Could you help me with this assignment?

Giving advice
You must see a doctor.

Voice
Active

The janitor opened the gate. Passive The gate was opened by the janitor. Middle The gate opened. Verbs which express all three voices are ergative verbs.

NOUNS

Form and position

1. Inflections -s plural -s possessive/genitive 2. Derivational Affixes protest, post-test, exhale, superman entertainment, implementation, clarity, happiness
3. Position Frequently preceded by determiners

Functions of nouns
Subject of verbs Subject complement (predicate noun) Direct object Indirect object Object complement/object noun predicate Appositive Vocative Object of the preposition

Functions of nouns
1. The guest is amiable. (subject) 2. He is my hero. (subject complement: predicate noun) 3. They are excited. (subject complement: predicate adjective) 4. Mother gave a gift to the orphan. (direct object) Mother gave the orphan a gift.

Functions of nouns
5. They elected Mario president. (object complement) 6. Baguio City, the summer capital of the Philippines, is no longer as beautiful as it was before. (appositive) 7. Friends, shall we play tennis tomorrow? (vocative/noun of address) 8. PNU is at the corner of Taft Avenue and Ayala Boulevard. (object of the preposition)

Noun plurals
1. Irregular plural forms

foot-feet mouse-mice
2. -o ending nouns

ox-oxen child-children

hero heroes potato potatoes kilo kilos piano pianos zero zeros/zeroes volcano volcanos/volcanoes mosquito mosquitos/mosquitoes

Noun plurals
3. Have the same singular and plural form one deer two deer one species two species one series two series 4. Have foreign plurals (borrowed) criterion criteria fungus fungi formula formulae/formulas appendix appendices/appendixes analysis analyses ` curriculum curricula

Noun plurals
No plural form
baggage furniture trousers equipment jewelry scissors pliers linguistics acoustics personnel information

Always plural -ics ending

sg. physics pl. athletics

mathematics acrobatics

Noun plurals
Hyphenated or compound nouns
mothers-in-law editors-in-chief officers-in-charge

Noun possessive (genitive)

Two possible forms, if the singular noun
ends in s:

- Add an apostrophe and -s Thomas Thomass book - Add only an apostrophe Thomas Thomas book

Noun possessive (genitive)

Phrases of time
a months pay seasons greetings

Certain idioms
at arms length our moneys worth

Higher animals
a dogs life a birds nest

of-phrases (periphrastic)
After nouns not related to people
the tires of the car *the cars tires the roof of the house *the houses roof the surface of the table *the tables surface

Common noncount nouns

Whole groups made up of similar items baggage, clothing, equipment, fruit, makeup Fluids water, milk, oil, gasoline Solids bread, butter, cheese, meat, gold, wood Gases steam, air, oxygen, smoke, pollution Particles rice, chalk, corn, dirt, flour, salt

Common noncount nouns

Abstractions beauty, advice, time, homework, news Languages English, Spanish, Arabic Fields of study chemistry, engineering, history, literature

Common noncount nouns

Recreation baseball, tennis, chess, poker Activities driving, studying, swimming Natural phenomena weather, fog, heat, humidity, lightning, rain, thunder

DETERMINERS

Order of determiners
Pre-Det
QUANTIFIERS

Core Det
ARTICLES

Post-Det Adj
CARDINAL NUMBERS

Noun

all both half

MULTIPLIERS

a/an, the
POSS. ADJECTIVES

One/two
ORDINAL NUMBERS

my/your/his
DEMONSTRATIVES

young boys

twice four times

First/second
QUANTIFIERS

This/these
NOUN POSSESSIVES
INDEFINITE WORDS

little, some, most

some, any, no, each

Classification of nouns and articles

Nouns: Common nouns: Count nouns: Noncount nouns: common / proper count / noncount (mass) singular / plural no number distinction definite (the) indefinite (a, an, some)

Articles:

Article use
Nouns Common Count sg. Definite the pl. the the Noncount sg. 0 pl. the Proper

Indefinit e

a/an

some/0

some/0

PRONOUNS

Concepts
1. Refer to or replace NPs within a text or as direct reference to an outside situation 2. Occupy the same position as NPs
3. Kinds: subject, object, possessive, demonstrative, reflexive, indefinite, reciprocal, relative

Personal Pronouns
Subject Object Possessive

Possessive adjective

sg. I you he, she, it

pl. we you they

me you him, her, it

us you them

mine your his, hers

ours yours theirs

my + NOUN your his/her/its

our your their

Agreement with generic nouns and indefinite pronouns

(Anaphoric reference)

A student walked into the room. She was looking for the teacher. A student walked into the room. He was looking for the teacher. A student should always do his assignments.

A student should always do his/her assignment. Students should always do their assignments.

Agreement with generic nouns and indefinite pronouns

Somebody has left his book on the table.
Everyone has his or her own ideas. Somebody left their book on the table.
everyone everybody everything someone somebody everything anyone anybody anything no one nobody nothing

Reflexive pronouns
Singular myself yourself himself, herself, itself Plural ourselves yourselves themselves

I saw myself in the mirror. I looked at myself in the mirror. *I saw me in the mirror.

Emphatic reflexive pronouns

A:
B: C: B:

Did someone fax the report to Mr. Alba? Yes. Are you sure? Yes, I myself did it./ I faxed the report to him myself.

ADJECTIVES

Defining characteristics of adjectives

1. Modify or complement nouns
2. Commonly occur between a determiner and a
noun, or after be or other linking verbs 3. Inflections: -er comparative degree -est superlative degree 4. Derivational affixes: - able, -ish, -ful, -ous

Adjective types
1. Attributive / predicative

The young man is tall. My late father was an honest person.

2. Gradable

He is stronger than the other boys.

[more intense]

[less intense]

somewhat strong, strong, quite strong, very strong, extremely strong

Adjective types
3.
4.

Absolute Mayon Volcano has a perfect cone.

Polarity: refers to positive and negative contrasts in a language Positive/Unmarked
big old long high

Negative/Marked
small young short low

Gradable and absolute adjectives

Gradable
tall polite difficult taller more polite less difficult tallest most polite least difficult

Absolute
(nearly, almost) round (nearly, almost) perfect

Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses

1. Restrictive: necessary for defining which
noun is being referred to

The house [which is] decorated by the Albas is quite unusual.

2. Non-restrictive: not necessary, nonessential, simply adds information

The house, [which is] decorated by the Albas, is quite unusual.

Pre-nominal/post-nominal adjectives
Pre-nominal
lovely flowers a nice big round box

Post-nominal
the trees in the yard the trees which my father planted

Irregular adjectives
good bad little better worse less best worst least

Kinds of adjectives
Possessive
my/your/his/our/their tasks this/that concept these/those generalizations what information whose birthday which house

Demonstrative

Interrogative

Indefinite

many fruit/s several participants some places

Order of adjectives

Observation/opinion Size Shape Age Color Origin Material Qualifier

pretty small round antique blue Chineseporcelain serving BOWL

ADVERBS

Distinguishing characteristics
1. Modify verbs and contribute meaning to
various sorts of sentence
2. Common adverbs: direction: location: manner: time: frequency:

there here joyfully now often

to the park in this hall with happiness at two oclock every day

Distinguishing characteristics
3. Take different forms:

Adverbial clause:
She cried because she lost her wallet.

Adverbial phrase:

She cried very silently.

Prep. phrase: Jason woke up at seven oclock .

Distinguishing characteristics
4. Usually flexible in position: sentence initial,
medial, or final Unfortunately, we missed the bus. We missed unfortunately the bus. We missed the bus unfortunately.

Order of adverbs
{direction/goal} + position manner + time frequency + {purpose/reason}

The cat / jumped into the car < ---- > hastily

position
last night

manner

to catch a rat.

time

purpose

CONJUNCTIONS

Distinguishing characteristics
1. Conjunctions: words that join 2. Types: coordinating / subordinating 3. Coordinating conjunctions: join elements
that are grammatical equal; FANBOYS 4. Subordinating conjunctions: also called adverbial subordinators; join a dependent clause to an independent clause
after, although, because, before, if, since, unless, until, when, while

Distinguishing characteristics
5. Correlative Conjunctions: coordinate conjunctions used in pairs

both and, either or, neither nor, not only but also

Distinguishing characteristics
6. Complex sentences undergo either subordination or embedding.
7. Subordination: (of one clause [dependent] to another [independent]

Unless we help the calamity victims, they will have more difficulties.

Distinguishing characteristics
8. Embedding: a dependent clause (e.g. relative clause) is included within a main or independent clause)
The person fled. (matrix) The person was responsible for the accident. (embedded)

The person [the person was responsible for the accident] fled. The person who was responsible for the accident fled.

who

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Main points on conditional sentences

1. Conditional clauses talk about a possible situation and its results
Conditional clauses can begin with if. A conditional clause needs a main clause (result clause) to make a complete sentence.

2. 3.

If you study hard,

(conditional clause)

you will pass the exam.

(result clause)

4. The conditional clause can come before or after the main clause

If you study hard, you will pass the exam. You will pass the exam, if you study hard.

Factual conditionals
Tell about things that are always true and never
change.

If you heat water to 212 Fahrenheit, it boils. (usual word order) Water boils if you heat it to 212 Fahrenheit. (if clause contains new
information)

When(ever) you mix black and white, you get gray.

Expressing habitual relationships

If I cook, my husband washes the dishes.
When(ever) I lied, my mother punished me.

Basic verb forms used in conditional sentences

SITUATION True in the present True in the future OR simple present -dittoIF-CLAUSE simple present RESULT CLAUSE EXAMPLES simple present If you help me now, you are a true friend. If you drive carefully, you will have a safe trip. Unless you study hard, you will obtain a low grade.

simple present

will + simple form

Real condition

Main points on conditional sentences

Untrue in the present/ future simple past would + simple form If you brushed your teeth carefully, you would have fewer cavities. If you had studied hard, you wouldnt have obtained a low grade.

Untrue in the past

past perfect =

had + participle

would have + past participle

Other words to introduce conditional clauses

1. In case our team wins, it will be the new champion. 2. In the event the plane arrived late, we would miss our connection. 3. So long as he does not bother me, I will not bother him.

Other words to introduce conditional clauses

4. Supposing that he had been found guilty, he would have gone to prison. 5. On condition that she comes to every meeting, she has permission to attend the seminar.
6. Whether or not it rains, the game will be played as scheduled.

REPORTED SPEECH

Reported/indirect speech
1. After the main verb in the PRESENT TENSE,
the reporting verb stays the same. DS: The students say, We want to go. RS: The students say (that) they want to go.

2. After the main verb in the PAST TENSE, the

reporting verb changes if it is not already past or past perfect. DS: RS: We want to go, the students said. The students said, We want to go. The students said (that) they wanted to go.

Reported/indirect speech
DS: The students said, We will go. RS: The students said (that) they would go.
DS: The students said, We went. RS: The students said (that) they had gone.

Pronouns in reported speech

DS: The students say, We want to go. RS: The students say (that) they want to DS: Mary said, I want to go. RS: Mary said that she wanted to go. DS: Jose asked Pedro," Do you want to go. RS: Jose asked Pedro if he wanted to go. go.

Questions after wh-words

DS: Jose asked, When will you go? RS: Jose asked when s/he would go. DS: Amy asked, Where are you going? RS: Amy asked where s/he was going. DS: Mr. Alba asked the boys, How can you finish on time? RS: Mr. Alba asked the boys how they could finish on time.

Reported commands
DS: The dean said, Register on March 15. RS: The dean told the students to register on March 15. DS: My uncle always said, Prepare for the future. RS: My uncle always told me/us to prepare for the future.

Adverbs in reported speech

DS: The doctor said, Come back tomorrow. RS: The doctor told me/us to come back the following day.

DS: Mark said," I found my book yesterday. RS: Mark said that he found his book the day before.

PARALLELISM

Parallelism with clauses

Not parallel: Albert liked to spend his time studying in the library, working in the biology laboratory, and at the soccer game. Parallel: Albert liked to spend his time in the library, in the biology laboratory, and at the soccer game. Albert liked to spend his time studying in the library, working in the biology laboratory, and hanging out at the soccer game.

Parallelism with clauses

Not parallel: Albert was happy when he was studying math, working on his biology experiments, or to watch soccer games.
Parallel: Albert was happy when he was studying math, when he was working on his biology experiments, or when he was watching soccer games.

Misplaced and dangling modifiers

* Swinging from tree to tree, we watched the monkeys at
the zoo.

At the zoo, we watched the monkeys from tree to tree.

swinging

* At the age of eight, my family finally bought a dog.

When I was eight, my family finally bought a

dog.

* After a two-hour nap, the train pulled into the station.

After a two-hour nap, I awoke just as the train pulled into the station.

YES-NO QUESTIONS

Yes-no questions: modals and

be

Questions with modals

S: You can do that well. Q: Can you do that well? S: They should take advantage of the offer. Q: Should they take advantage of the offer?

Yes-no questions: modals and be

Questions with be-verb
S: John is an interesting guy. Q: Is John an interesting guy? S: He is doing well in his job. Q: Is he doing well in his job?

Yes-No questions: have and other verbs

Questions with have
S: She has been reviewing for the exam. Q: Has she been reviewing for the exam?

Questions with do
S: Ella has a beautiful voice. = Ella does have a beautiful voice. Q: Does Ella have a beautiful voice?

Yes-No questions: have and other verbs

S: The boys have a new book. = The boys do have a new book. Q: Do the boys have a new book?

Yes-No questions with do

S: The family prays together. prays = does pray Q: Does the family pray together? S: The family members pray together. pray = do pray Q: Do the family members pray together? S: The family prayed together. prayed = did pray Q: Did the family pray together?

TAG QUESTIONS

Tag questions
1. 2. 3. A tag question comes at the end of a statement. It asks for agreement or disagreement. It is positive after a negative statement and vice versa.

The mail has come today, hasnt it. The mail hasnt come today, has it?
Its raining, isnt it? It isnt raining, is it?

SENTENCE TYPES

1. Simple The parents / signed the permission form. The captain and his men / fought with their enemies bravely. 2. Compound The doctor / schedules a consultation, but he / has not come yet. This test / is for preschool children; it / should not be used for other children. The children / didnt enjoy it; nevertheless, it / was a learning experience.

Sentence types: clause structure

Sentence types
3. Complex Alan, [the boy I told you about,] was discharged last week. [As the family has suspected,] their barangay captain would not help at all. The poem [which won the award] pleased the judges.

4. Compound-complex It was true [that the building was elevated above the flood level], but the water reached the floor anyway.

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions: place
lives
in a city in a province in a country in a dormitory in a specific room or apartment on a street without a number at a street with a number at or away from home

Prepositions: place
landed
located
in Manila at the NAIA airport
on the beach on the ocean on the plains on the river, bay, lake at the shore in the mountains in the desert

Prepositions: time
comes
as early/late/soon as possible at ten oclock on time in time for class up to 15 minutes late after/before 10:00

Prepositions: time
visited
in May in 2008 in May 2008 on May 3 on May 3, 2008 on Wednesday in the morning, evening at noon, night
in the past decade during the last ten year

took place

Variation in use
1. Spatial proximity: a house near/by the lake 2. Time/degree approximation: happened
about/around two oclock 3. Telling time: a quarter to/of ten 4. Telling time: a quarter after/past ten on/along the river

5. Location along something: the towns

6. In a time period: It happened in/during

7.

1998. Temporal termination: work from 9 until/till/to 5

8. Location lower than something:

below/beneath/under/underneath the stairs above/over the table

9. Location higher than something:

10. Location in/at the rear of something: behind/in back of the door

11. Location adjacent: next to/beside the stream

Once again, I wish you all the luck in the coming LET! If others can make it, there WONT be any reason why you cant.