Chapter

Electricity

Topics Covered in Chapter 1 1-1: Negative and Positive Polarities 1-2: Electrons and Protons in the Atom 1-3: Structure of the Atom 1-4: The Coulomb Unit of Electric Charge 1-5: The Volt Unit of Potential Difference
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Topics Covered in Chapter 1

1-6: Charge in Motion Is Current 1-7: Resistance Is Opposition to Current

1-8: The Closed Circuit

1-9 The Direction of Current 1-10: Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC)

1-11: Sources of Electricity

1-12: The Digital Multimeter

1-1: Negative and Positive Polarities

Electrons and Protons: All the materials we know, including solids, liquids and gases, contain two basic particles of electric charge: the electron and the proton. The electron is the smallest particle of electric charge having the characteristic called negative polarity. The proton is the smallest particle of electric charge having the characteristic called positive polarity.

1-1: Negative and Positive Polarities

The arrangement of electrons and protons in a

substance determines its electrical characteristics.

When the number of protons and electrons in a

substance are equal, they cancel each other out, making the substance electrically neutral.

1-1: Negative and Positive Polarities

To use the electrical forces associated with the negative

and positive charges in matter, the electrons and protons must be separated.
Changing the balance of forces produces evidence of

electricity.

1-1: Negative and Positive Polarities

Fig. 1-1: Positive and negative polarities for the voltage output of a typical battery.
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1-2: Electrons and Protons in the Atom

Electrons and protons in an atom assemble in specific

combinations for a stable arrangement.

Each stable combination makes one particular kind of

atom.

1-2: Electrons and Protons in the Atom

A hydrogen atom contains one proton in its nucleus. This

is balanced by one orbiting electron. A hydrogen atom contains no neutrons in its nucleus.

Fig. 1-2: Electron and proton in the hydrogen (H) atom.

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1-2: Electrons and Protons in the Atom

Electrons are distributed in orbital rings around the

nucleus. The distribution of electrons determines the atoms electrical stability. The electrons in the orbital ring farthest from the nucleus are especially important. If electrons in the outermost ring escape from the atom they become free electrons. Free electrons can move from one atom to the next and are the basis of electric current.

1-2: Electrons and Protons in the Atom

Fig. 1-3: Atomic structure showing the nucleus and its orbital rings of electrons. (a) Carbon (C) atom has 6 orbital electrons to balance 6 protons in the nucleus. (b) Copper (Cu) atom has 29 protons in the nucleus and 29 orbital electrons.
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1-2: Electrons and Protons in the Atom

When electrons in the outermost ring of an atom can

move easily from one atom to the next in a material, the material is called a conductor. Examples of conductors include:
silver copper aluminum.

1-2: Electrons and Protons in the Atom

When electrons in the outermost ring of an atom do not

move about easily, but instead stay in their orbits, the material is called an insulator. Examples of insulators include:
glass plastic rubber.

1-2: Electrons and Protons in the Atom

Semiconductors are materials that are neither good

conductors nor good insulators. Examples of semiconductors include:

carbon silicon. germanium

1-3: Structure of the Atom

Atomic Number The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom balanced by an equal number of orbiting electrons. The number of electrons in orbit around the nucleus of a neutral atom is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.

1-3: Structure of the Atom

Orbital Rings Electrons are contained in successive rings beyond the nucleus. The rings are called K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q, respectively. Each ring has a maximum number of electrons for stability. They are:
K ring = 2 electrons. L ring = 8 electrons. M ring = 8 or 18 electrons. N ring = 8,18, or 32 electrons.

O ring = 8 or 18 electrons P ring = 8 or 18 electrons Q ring = 8 electrons

1-3: Structure of the Atom

The maximum number of electrons in the outermost ring

is always 8.
The electron valence of an atom is the number of electrons in an incomplete outermost shell. The valence indicates how easily the atom can gain or lose electrons.
An atoms nucleus contains neutrons as well as

protons.
Neutrons have no net electric charge.

1-3: Structure of the Atom

One Atom of Copper

Atomic number = 29
K=2 (complete) L=8 (complete)

K L M

M = 18 (complete)

N=1 (incomplete)

1-3: Structure of the Atom

The valence electron is weakly bound to the nucleus. This makes copper an excellent conductor.
29 protons atomic number = 29

29 electrons (net charge = 0)

1 valence electron

1-4: The Coulomb Unit of Electric Charge

Most common applications of electricity require the

charge of billions of electrons or protons.

1 coulomb (C) is equal to the quantity (Q) of 6.25 1018

electrons or protons.
The symbol for electric charge is Q or q, for quantity.

1-4: The Coulomb Unit of Electric Charge

Negative and Positive Polarities Charges of the same polarity tend to repel each other. Charges of opposite polarity tend to attract each other. Electrons tend to move toward protons because electrons have a much smaller mass than protons. An electric charge can have either negative or positive polarity. An object with more electrons than protons has a net negative charge (-Q) whereas an object with more protons than electrons has a net positive charge (+Q). An object with an equal number of electrons and protons is considered electrically neutral (Q = 0C)

1-4: The Coulomb Unit of Electric Charge

Fig. 1-5: Physical force between electric charges. (a) Opposite charges attract. (b) Two negative charges repel each other. (c) Two positive charges repel.
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1-4: The Coulomb Unit of Electric Charge

Charge of an Electron The charge of a single electron, or Qe, is 0.16 1018 C. It is expressed Qe = 0.16 1018 C (Qe indicates the charge is negative.) The charge of a single proton, QP, is also equal to 0.16 1018 C . However, its polarity is positive instead of negative.

1-5: The Volt Unit of Potential Difference

Potential refers to the possibility of doing work. Any charge has the potential to do the work of moving

another charge, either by attraction or repulsion. Two unlike charges have a difference of potential. Potential difference is often abbreviated PD. The volt is the unit of potential difference. Potential difference is also called voltage.

1-5: The Volt Unit of Potential Difference

The volt is a measure of the amount

of work or energy needed to move an electric charge. The metric unit of work or energy is the joule (J). One joule = 0.7376 ftlbs. The potential difference (or voltage) between two points equals 1 volt when 1 J of energy is expended in moving 1 C of charge between those two points.
1V=1J/1C
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9 joules coulomb

1-5: The Volt Unit of Potential Difference

Fig. 1-7: The amount of work required to move electrons between two charges depends on their difference of potential. This potential difference (PD) is equivalent for the examples in (a), (b), and (c).
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1-6: Charge in Motion Is Current

When the potential difference between two charges

causes a third charge to move, the charge in motion is an electric current. Current is a continuous flow of electric charges such as electrons.

1-6: Charge in Motion Is Current

Fig. 1-9: Potential difference across two ends of wire conductor causes drift of free electrons throughout the wire to produce electric current.
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1-6: Charge in Motion Is Current

The amount of current is dependent on the amount of

voltage applied. The greater the amount of applied voltage, the greater the number of free electrons that can be made to move, producing more charge in motion, and therefore a larger value of current. Current can be defined as the rate of flow of electric charge. The unit of measure for electric current is the ampere (A). 1 A = 6.25 1018 electrons (1C) flowing past a given point each second, or 1A= 1C/s. The letter symbol for current is I or i, for intensity.

1-7: Resistance Is Opposition to Current

Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current. A component manufactured to have a specific value of

resistance is called a resistor. Conductors, like copper or silver, have very low resistance. Insulators, like glass and rubber, have very high resistance. The unit of resistance is the ohm (). The symbol for resistance is R.

1-7: Resistance Is Opposition to Current

Fig. 1-10: (a) Wire-wound type of resistor with cement coating for insulation. (b) Schematic symbol for any type of fixed resistor.
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1-8: The Closed Circuit

A circuit can be defined as a path for current flow. Any

circuit has three key characteristics: 1. There must be a source of potential difference (voltage). Without voltage current cannot flow. 2. There must be a complete path for current flow. 3. The current path normally has resistance, either to generate heat or limit the amount of current.

1-8: The Closed Circuit

Open and Short Circuits When a current path is broken (incomplete) the circuit is said to be open. The resistance of an open circuit is infinitely high. There is no current in an open circuit. When the current path is closed but has little or no resistance, the result is a short circuit. Short circuits can result in too much current.

1-8: The Closed Circuit

A closed circuit (current is flowing)
The purpose of the resistor is to limit current (flow) or to generate heat.

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1-8: The Closed Circuit

An open circuit (no current is flowing)

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1-9: Direction of the Current

With respect to the positive and negative terminals of

the voltage source, current has direction. When free electrons are considered as the moving charges we call the direction of current electron flow. Electron flow is from the negative terminal of the voltage source through the external circuit back to the positive terminal. Conventional current is considered as the motion of positive charges. Conventional current flows in the opposite direction from electron flow (positive to negative).

1-9: Direction of the Current

Fig. 1-13: Direction of I in a closed circuit, shown for electron flow and conventional current. The circuit works the same way no matter which direction you consider. (a) Electron flow indicated with dashed arrow in diagram. (b) Conventional current indicated with solid arrow. (c) Electron flow as in (a) but with reversed polarity of voltage source. (d) Conventional I as in (b) but reversed polarity for V.

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1-10: Direct Current and Alternating Current

Direct current (dc) flows in only one direction. Alternating current (ac) periodically reverses direction. The unit for 1 cycle per second is the hertz (Hz). This

unit describes the frequency of reversal of voltage polarity and current direction.

1-10: Direct Current and Alternating Current

Fig. 1-14: Steady dc voltage of fixed polarity, such as the output of a battery. Note the schematic symbol at left.

Fig. 1-15: Sine-wave ac voltage with alternating polarity, such as from an ac generator. Note the schematic symbol at left. The ac line voltage in your home has this waveform.

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1-11: Sources of Electricity

All materials have electrons and protons. To do work, the electric charges must be separated to

produce a potential difference.

Potential difference is necessary to produce current

flow.

1-11: Sources of Electricity

Common sources of electricity include: Static electricity by friction
Example: walking across a carpeted room

Conversion of chemical energy

wet or dry cells; batteries

Electromagnetism
motors, generators

Photoelectricity
materials that emit electrons when light strikes their surfaces;

photoelectric cells; TV camera tubes

1-12: The Digital Multimeter

A digital multimeter

(DMM) is a device used to measure the voltage, current, or resistance in a circuit.

Fig. 1-16: A handheld digital multimeter and a benchtop unit.

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Chapter

Resistors

Topics Covered in Chapter 2 (cont) 2-1: Types of Resistors 2-2: Resistor Color Coding 2-3: Variable Resistors 2-4: Rheostats and Potentiometers 2-5: Power Ratings of Resistors 2-6: Resistor Troubles
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2-1: Types of Resistors

The two main characteristics of a resistor are its

resistance, R, in ohms and its power rating, P, in Watts.

The resistance, R, provides the required reduction in

current or the desired drop in voltage.

The wattage rating indicates the amount of power the resistor can safely dissipate as heat. The wattage rating is always more than the actual amount of power dissipated by the resistor, as a safety factor.

2-1: Types of Resistors

Types of Resistors Wire-wound resistors Carbon-composition resistors Film-type resistors Carbon film Metal film Surface-mount resistors (chip resistors) Fusible resistors Thermistors

2-1: Types of Resistors

Wire Wound Resistor Special resistance wire is wrapped around an insulating core, typically porcelain, cement, or pressed paper. These resistors are typically used for high-current applications with low resistance and appreciable power.
Fig. 2-3: Large wire-wound resistors with 50-W power ratings. (a) Fixed R, length of 5 in. (b) Variable R, diameter of 3 in.
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2-1: Types of Resistors

Carbon Composition Resistors Made of carbon or graphite mixed with a powdered insulating material. Metal caps with tinned copper wire (called axial leads) are joined to the ends of the carbon resistance element. They are used for soldering the connections into a circuit. Becoming obsolete because of the development of carbonfilm resistors.

Fig. 2-2: Carbon resistors with the same physical size but different resistance values. The physical size indicates a power rating of W.

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2-1: Types of Resistors

Carbon Film Resistors Compared to carbon composition resistors, carbon-film resistors have tighter tolerances, are less sensitive to temperature changes and aging, and generate less noise.

Fig. 2-4: Construction of a carbon film resistor.

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2-1: Types of Resistors

Metal Film Resistors Metal film resistors have very tight tolerances, are less sensitive to temperature changes and aging, and generate less noise.

Fig. 2-5: Construction of a metal film resistor.

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2-1: Types of Resistors

Surface-Mount Resistors (also

called chip resistors) These resistors are:

Temperature-stable and rugged Their end electrodes are soldered

directly to a circuit board. Much smaller than conventional resistors with axial leads.

Fig. 2-6: Typical chip resistors.

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2-1: Types of Resistors

Fusible Resistors:
Fusible resistors are wire-wound resistors made to burn

open easily when the power rating is exceeded. They serve a dual function as both a fuse and a resistor.

2-1: Types of Resistors

Thermistors: Thermistors are temperaturesensitive resistors whose resistance value changes with changes in operating temperature. Used in electronic circuits where temperature measurement, control, and compensation are desired.
Fig. 2-7b: Typical thermistor shapes and sizes.
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2-2: Resistor Color Coding

Carbon resistors are small, so their R value in ohms is

marked using a color-coding system.

Colors represent numerical values. Coding is standardized by the Electronic Industries

Alliance (EIA).

2-2: Resistor Color Coding

Resistor Color Code
Color Code 0 Black 1 Brown 2 Red 3 Orange 4 Yellow 5 Green 6 Blue 7 Violet
Fig. 2-8: How to read color stripes on carbon resistors for R in ohms.
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8 Gray 9 White

2-2: Resistor Color Coding

Resistors under 10 : The multiplier band is either gold or silver. For gold, multiply by 0.1. For silver, multiply by 0.01.

Fig. 2-9: Examples of color-coded R values, with percent tolerance.

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2-2: Resistor Color Coding

Applying the Color
Gold = 5% 5% of 4700 = 235
Yellow = 4

Code The amount by which the actual R can differ from the color-coded value is its tolerance. Tolerance is usually stated in percentages.

4700 - 235 = 4465 4700 + 235 = 4935

Violet = 7 Red = 2 The actual value can range from 4465 to 4935 .

47 00 700

is the nominal value.

2-2: Resistor Color Coding

What is the nominal value and permissible ohmic

range for each resistor shown?

1 k (950 to 1050 ) 390 (370.5 to 409.5 )

22 k (20.9 to 23.1 k)

1 M (950 k to 1.05 M)

2-2: Resistor Color Coding

Five-Band Color Code Precision resistors often use a five-band code to obtain more accurate R values. The first three stripes indicate the first 3 digits in the R value. The fourth stripe is the multiplier. The tolerance is given by the fifth stripe. Brown = 1% Red = 2% Green = 0.5% Blue = 0.25% Violet = 0.1%.
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Fig. 2-10: Five-band code.

2-2: Resistor Color Coding

Zero-Ohm Resistor Has zero ohms of resistance. Used for connecting two points on a printed-circuit board. Body has a single black band around it. Wattage ratings are typically 1/8- or 1/4-watt.
Fig. 2-11: A zero-ohm resistor is indicated by a single black color band around the body of the resistor.
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2-3: Variable Resistors

A variable resistor is a resistor whose resistance value

can be changed.

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2-4: Rheostats and Potentiometers

Rheostats and potentiometers are variable resistances used

to vary the amount of current or voltage in a circuit. Rheostats: Two terminals. Connected in series with the load and the voltage source. Varies the current.

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2-4: Rheostats and Potentiometers

Potentiometers: Three terminals. Ends connected across the voltage source. Third variable arm taps off part of the voltage.

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2-4: Rheostats and Potentiometers

Rheostats are two-terminal devices.
Wiper arm

Wiping contact

Fixed contact

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2-4: Rheostats and Potentiometers

Using a Rheostat to Control Current Flow The rheostat must have a wattage rating high enough for the maximum I when R is minimum.

Fig. 2-17: Rheostat connected in series circuit to vary the current I. Symbol for the current meter is A, for amperes. (a) Wiring diagram with digital meter for I. (b) Schematic diagram.
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2-4: Rheostats and Potentiometers

Potentiometers Potentiometers are threeterminal devices. The applied V is input to the two end terminals of the potentiometer. The variable V is output between the variable arm and an end terminal.
Fig. 2-18: Potentiometer connected across voltage source to function as a voltage divider. (a) Wiring diagram. (b) Schematic diagram.
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2-5: Power Rating of Resistors

In addition to having the required ohms value, a resistor

should have a wattage rating high enough to dissipate the power produced by the current without becoming too hot. Power rating depends on the resistors construction. A larger physical size indicates a higher power rating. Higher-wattage resistors can operate at higher temperatures. Wire-wound resistors are physically larger and have higher power ratings than carbon resistors.

2-6: Resistor Troubles

Resistors can become open or they can drift out of

tolerance.
Some controls (especially volume and tone controls)

may become noisy or scratchy-sounding, indicating a dirty or worn-out resistance element.

Due to the very nature of their construction, resistors

can short out internally. They may, however, become short-circuited by another component in the circuit.

2-6: Resistor Troubles

An open resistor measures infinite resistance.

An example of an out-of-tolerance resistor:

1 k,5% nominal

1.5 k

2-6: Resistor Troubles

Resistance measurements are made with an

ohmmeter.
The ohmmeter has its own voltage source, so voltage

must be off in the circuit being tested. Otherwise the ohmmeter may become damaged.

2-6: Resistor Troubles

All experienced technicians have seen a burnt resistor. This is usually caused by a short somewhere else in the

circuit which causes a high current to flow in the resistor. When a resistors power rating is exceeded, it can burn open or drift way out of tolerance.

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