EC301 COMPUTER NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 1 Introduction to Networking

Zaharudin Bin Md Dawam Department of Electrical Engineering

Learning Outcome
Upon completion of this topic students will be able to:
i. List the advantages of networked computing relative to standalone computing ii. Distinguish between client/server and peer-to-peer networks iii. Differentiate LAN, MAN and WAN iv. List elements common to all client/server networks v. Distinguish various computer network topologies (Bus, Ring, Star, Hybrid)

1.1 Introduction to networking

Definition 1: Networks A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by media links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other capable of sending and /or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. The links connecting the devices are often called communication channels

Definition 2: A network is simply a group of interconnected devices communicating with each other.

Why Use Networks?

Network
Group of computers and devices
Connected by transmission media

Stand-alone computer
Not connected to other computers Uses local software and data

Advantages of networks over standalone computers

share software share information with others on networks Device/peripherals sharing by multiple users
Saves money and time

speed of sharing software and information files cheaper than buying individual software and hardware for each standalone especially if for a school, network software often offers deals for amount being purchased security, files can be copy inhibit mode

Advantages of networks over standalone computers (contd..)

Central network management centralized software management- software being loaded onto one computer but also this loads software to entire network at one time flexible access- access you files from any computer on the network unlike standalone which would mean only being able to access your data from the one computer you uploaded data onto

Two fundamental types of networks

a) Peer-to-peer network b) Client/Server network

Two fundamental types of networks

a) Peer-to-peer network Also known as a P2P network, a peer-to-peer network is a network that does not have a central computer or dedicated server; In other words, all computers are independent. This type of network is the type of network you would most likely find in home networks or small networks comprised of a dozen or less computers.

Peer-to-Peer Network

No centralized data access. Security handled by assigning each resource a password.

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Peer-to-Peer Networks
Typical in a home with several computers Direct computer communication
Equal authority

Individual resource sharing

May share resources May prevent access to resources

Each computer can send/receive data to/from every other computer on the network

Peer-to-Peer Networks
Advantages
Simple configuration Inexpensive to set up

Disadvantages
Not flexible Not necessarily secure Not practical for large installations

Peer-to-Peer Networks
Resource sharing method
Modify file sharing controls
A user responsibility

Not centrally controlled

Potential variations and security issues

Environments
Small home or office Large networks using the Internet
Gnutella, Freenet, original Napster BitTorrent software

Peer-to-Peer Network

Client & Server Client & Server Client & Server

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Peer-to-peer works best with a a small number of computers.

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Peer-to-Peer Network

Figure 1-1 Resource sharing on a simple peer-to-peer network

Two fundamental types of networks

b) Client/Server network A type of network setup that utilizes both servers and clients.

For example, a network that utilizes a DNS server is an example of a client/server network.
Most client/server networks are the type of networks you would find in a corporate or business environment.

Client/Server Network

Centralized data access. Centralized security. Centralized administration, record keeping, and control.

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Client/Server Networks
Server requirement
Network operating system
Manages client data, resources Ensures authorized user access Controls user file access Restricts user network access Dictates computer communication rules Supplies application to clients

Server examples
UNIX, Linux, Microsoft Server 2003 and 2008, MAC OS X Server

Client/Server Networks
Server features relative to clients
More memory, processing, storage capacity Equipped with special hardware
Provides network management functions

Disadvantages relative to peer-to-peer networks

Complex in design and maintenance

Client/Server Networks
Advantages relative to peer-to-peer networks
User credential assigned from one place Multiple shared resource access centrally controlled Central problem monitoring, diagnostics, correction capabilities User response time optimization capabilities Efficient processing on large networks Scalability

Popular in medium and large-scale organizations

Client/Server Networks
Central computer (server)
Facilitates communication and resource sharing

Clients (other computers)

Personal computers
Known as workstations

Central resource sharing controlled by server

Data sharing, data storage space, devices No direct sharing of client resources

Client/Server Networks
Computer roles
Server Clients
Run local applications Store data locally Use server shared applications, data, devices Use server as intermediary

Communication
Switches or routers

The Client is the computer requesting the use of a resource.

May I have Worksheet-101?

Client

Server

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The Server is the computer providing the resource.

Sure, here it is! Client

Worksheet-101

Server

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A single computer can act as the server for several clients.

Client Client

Client

Server

Client

Client

Client
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Client/Server Network

Client

Client

Client

Server

Client

Client

Client
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Larger networks require the client/server arrangement.

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Client/Server Networks

Hub

Figure 1-2 Resource sharing on a client/server network

Network Classification LANs, MANs, and WANs

Figure 1-3 A more complex client/server network

LANs, MANs, and WANs

LAN (local area network)
Network confined to a relatively small space 1980s
LANs became popular as peer-to-peer based

Today
Larger and more complex client/server network

MAN (metropolitan area network)

Network extends beyond building boundaries Larger than LAN Connects clients and servers from multiple buildings

LANs, MANs, and WANs

WAN (wide area network)
Connects two or more geographically distinct LANs or MANs Comparison to LANs
Use slightly different transmission methods and media Use greater variety of technologies

Network connection
Separate offices in same organization Separate offices in different organizations

LANs, MANs, and WANs (contd.)

A simple LAN

LANs, MANs, and WANs (contd.)

LANs, MANs, and WANs (contd.)

Figure 1-4 A simple WAN

Network topologies
Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer Physical topology refers to the physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as opposed to its physical design

Common Network Topologies

Figure 1-7 Common network topologies

Bus Topology

Backbone

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Bus Topology

A single cable interconnects all workstations. The cable is terminated at both ends.

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Star Topology

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Star Topology

All workstations connect to a single central hub.

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Ring Topology

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Ring Topology

Backbone is a ring.
Each workstation connects only to two other workstations.

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Mesh Topology

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Mesh Topology
Net-1 Net-2

Net-4

Net-3
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The Internet is an example of a Mesh topology.

Internet

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Organization that set standard

American National Standards Institute (ANSI): ANSI is the main organization responsible for coordinating and publishing computer and information technology standards in the United States. While they are commonly thought of as developing and maintaining standards, they do neither. Instead, they oversee and accredit the organizations that actually create the standards, qualifying them as Standards Developing Organizations or SDOs. ANSI also publishes the standards documents created by the SDOs, and serves as the United States' representative to the ISO.

EIA/TIA
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA): The EIA is an international industry association that is best known for publishing electrical wiring and transmission standards. Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA): The TIA is the communications sector of the EIA, and is responsible for developing communications standards. Since communications, wiring and transmission are all related, and since the TIA and EIA organizations are also related, standards produced by the EIA or TIA are often labeled with the combined prefixes EIA/TIA or TIA/EIA.

IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): The IEEE (pronounced eye-triple-ee) is a well-known professional organization for those in the electrical or electronics fields, including computers and networking. IEEE's main claim to fame in the networking industry is the IEEE 802 Project, which encompasses many popular networking technologies including Ethernet.

ISO
International Organization for Standardization (ISO): Probably the biggest standards organization in the world, the ISO is really a federation of standards organizations from dozens of nations. In the networking world, the ISO is best known for its OSI Reference Model.

ITU
International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITUT): ITU-T is another large international body that develops standards for the telecommunications industry. The ITU-T was formerly named the International Telephone and Telegraph Consultative Committee or CCITT (the abbreviation was of the French version of the organization's name, Comit consultatif international tlphonique et tlgraphique.)

ISOC
The Internet Society or ISOC is an international, nonprofit organization founded during 1992 to provide direction in Internet related standards, education, and policy. It states that its mission is "to assure the open development, evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world The Internet Society has offices near Washington, DC, USA, and in Geneva, Switzerland. It has a membership base comprising more than 80 organizational and more than 28,000 individual members. Members also form "chapters" based on either common geographical location or special interests. There are currently more than 90 chapters around the world

ICANN
The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers(ICANN) is a non-profit corporation headquartered in Marina Del Rey, California, United States that was created on September 18, 1998, and incorporated on September 30, 1998 to be able to oversee a number of Internet-related tasks previously performed directly on behalf of the U.S. government by other organizations, notably the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)

IANA
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is the entity that oversees global IP address allocation, AS number allocation, root zone management for the Domain Name System (DNS), media types, and other Internet Protocol related assignments. It is operated by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, better known as ICANN.

1.2 Principles of communication in networking

Data communication system:
Communication devices Data elements Electronic communication methods Transmission media

Communication devices
Wired
Data terminal equipment (DTE) Data communication Equipment (DCE)

Wireless
3G GPRS HSDPA Mobile phones

Data transmission concepts

In data networking, transmit means to issue signals to the network medium Transmission refers to either the process of transmitting or the progress of signals after they have been transmitted

Analog and Digital Signals

Information transmitted via analog or digital signals
Signal strength proportional to voltage

In analog signals, voltage varies continuously and appears as a wavy line when graphed over time
Waves amplitude is a measure of its strength Frequency: number of times waves amplitude cycles from starting point, through highest amplitude and lowest amplitude, back to starting point over a fixed period of time
Measured in Hz
Network+ Guide to Networks, 4e 60

Analog and Digital Signals (continued)

Wavelength: distance between corresponding points on a waves cycle Phase: progress of a wave over time in relationship to a fixed point Analog transmission susceptible to transmission flaws such as noise Digital signals composed of pulses of precise, positive voltages and zero voltages
Positive voltage represents 1 Zero voltage represents 0
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Analog and Digital Signals (continued)

Binary system: uses 1s and 0s to represent information
Easy to convert between binary and decimal

Bit: a single binary signal Byte: 8 bits

Typically represents one piece of information

Overhead: describes non-data information that must accompany data for a signal to be properly routed and interpreted
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Data Modulation

Figure 3-5: A carrier wave modified through frequency modulation

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Transmission Direction: Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Duplex

Simplex transmission: signals may travel in only one direction Half-duplex transmission: signals may travel in both directions over a medium
Only one direction at a time

Full-duplex or duplex: signals free to travel in both directions over a medium simultaneously
Used on data networks Channel: distinct communication path between nodes
May be separated logically or physically
Network+ Guide to Networks, 4e 64

Transmission Direction: Multiplexing

Multiplexing: transmission form allowing multiple signals to travel simultaneously over one medium
Channel logically separated into subchannels

Multiplexer (mux): combines multiple signals

Sending end of channel

Demultiplexer (demux): separates combined signals and regenerates them in original form
Receiving end of channel

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Relationships Between Nodes

Figure 3-10: Point-to-point versus broadcast transmission

Network+ Guide to Networks, 4e 66

Bluetooth, 3G
Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using short wavelength radio transmissions in the ISM band from 2400-2480 MHz) from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area networks (PANs) with high levels of security. 3G or 3rd generation mobile telecommunications, is a generation of standards for mobile phones and mobile telecommunication services fulfilling the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) specifications by the International Telecommunication Union

Throughput and Bandwidth

Throughput: measure of amount of data transmitted during given time period Bandwidth: difference between highest and lowest frequencies that a medium can transmit

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Transmission Flaws: Noise

electromagnetic interference (EMI): waves emanating from electrical devices or cables radiofrequency interference (RFI): electromagnetic interference caused by radiowaves Crosstalk: signal traveling on a wire or cable infringes on signal traveling over adjacent wire or cable Certain amount of signal noise is unavoidable All forms of noise measured in decibels (dB)
Network+ Guide to Networks, 4e 69

Attenuation

Figure 3-12: An analog signal distorted by noise and then amplified

Figure 3-13: A digital signal distorted by noise and then repeated

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Latency
Delay between transmission and receipt of a signal
Many possible causes:
Cable length Intervening connectivity device (e.g., modems and routers)

Round trip time (RTT): Time for packets to go from sender to receiver and back Cabling rated for maximum number of connected network segments Transmission methods assigned maximum segment lengths
Network+ Guide to Networks, 4e 71

Rules of communications
Establish a link Issue a command and command qualifier
Send, receive

Acknowledgment of command
Ack field in ethernet frame

Dissection messages
Packet, frame

Error detection and correction

cyclic redundancy check (CRC)

Termination of transmission

Rules of communications

1.4.3 Describe the functions of LAN connectivity hardware :

Repeaters
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances. Repeaters work with the actual physical signal, and do not attempt to interpret the data being transmitted, they operate on the Physical layer, the first layer of the OSI model.

Hub

An Ethernet hub, active hub, network hub, repeater hub or hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and making them act as a single network segment. Hubs work at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model The device is a form of multiport repeater. participate in collision detection, forwarding a jam signal to all ports if it detects a collision.

Switch

A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that connects network segments. The term commonly refers to a network bridge that processes and routes data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches that additionally process data at the network layer (layer 3 and above) are often referred to as Layer 3 switches or multilayer switches

Bridges

A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. A bridge and switch are very much alike; a switch being a bridge with numerous ports. Bridges can analyze incoming data packets to determine if the bridge is able to send the given packet to another segment of the network

Router

A router is a device that interconnects two or more computer networks, and selectively interchanges packets of data between them. A router is a networking device whose software and hardware are customized to the tasks of routing and forwarding information. A router has two or more network interfaces, which may be to different physical types of network (such as copper cables, fiber, or wireless) or different network standards Works in layer 3 OSI model

Gateways

A network gateway is an internetworking system capable of joining together two networks that use different base protocols. A network gateway can be implemented completely in software, completely in hardware, or as a combination of both. Depending on the types of protocols they support, network gateways can operate at any level of the OSI model.

Gateways
Connect two systems using different formatting, communications protocols, or architecture
Repackage information to be read by another system
Operates at multiple OSI Model layers

E-mail gateway Internet gateway LAN gateway Voice/data gateway Firewall

WAP
Wireless access point (WAP) is a device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or related standards. The WAP usually connects to a router (via a wired network), and can relay data between the wireless devices (such as computers or printers) and wired devices on the network.

WAP
Linksys WAP

Mobiles base stations

base station is a wireless communications station installed at a fixed location and used to communicate as part of either:
a push-to-talk two-way radio system, or; a wireless telephone system such as cellular CDMA or GSM cell site. Terrestrial Trunked Radio

NIC
A NIC, or Network Interface Card, is a circuit board or chip, which allows the computer to communicate to other computers on a Network. This board, when connected to a cable or other method of transferring data such as infrared, can share resources, information and computer hardware. Utilizing network cards to connect to a network allow users to share data such as companies being able to have the capability of having a database that can be accessed all at the same time, send and receive e-mail internally within the company, or share hardware devices such as printers.

NIC
CONNECTORS Network cards have three main types of connectors. Below is an example of what a network card may look like.

BNC - As illustrated in the above picture, the BNC connector is a round connector which is used for Thinnet or 10Base-2 Local Area Network. DB9 - The DB9 connector, not to be confused with the Serial Port, or sometimes referred to as the RJ45 JACK, not to be confused with the RJ45 connection, is used with Token Ring networks.

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NIC
DB-15 - The DB-15 connector is used for a Thicknet or 10Base-5 Local area network. RJ45 - Today, one of the most popular types of connections used with computer networks. RJ45 looks similar to a phone connector or RJ11 connector but is slightly smaller.

LED -The LEDs, as shown in the above illustration, indicates if it detects a network; generally by a green light which may flash as it communicates, and then a red light which indicates collisions which will generally flash or not flash at all.

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1.4.1 identify the various types of Network Interface Card

Installed on an expansion board inside a computer
PCI NIC

Motherboard with installed NIC

PCIE NIC

Installed to the computers bus externally

PCMCIA adapter

USB port

FireWire

Compact Flash NIC

 On-board NIC

Wireless NIC

VLAN
A virtual local area network, virtual LAN or VLAN, is a group of hosts with a common set of requirements that communicate as if they were attached to the same broadcast domain, regardless of their physical location. A VLAN has the same attributes as a physical local area network (LAN), but it allows for end stations to be grouped together even if they are not located on the same network switch. VLAN membership can be configured through software instead of physically relocating devices or connections

VLAN
provide the segmentation services traditionally provided by routers in LAN configurations. VLANs address issues such as scalability, security, and network management. Routers in VLAN topologies provide broadcast filtering, security, address summarization, and traffic flow management