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Exchange placement (Toll-center placement): Rather than base the placement decision on subscriber density and their calling rates, the basic criterion is economy, the most costeffective optimum.
Traffic matrix/Routing: The design procedure is to construct the familiar traffic matrix, where cost ratio studies are carried out to determine whether routing will be direct or tandem. The tendency is to use tandem working and direct routes with overflow

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Comparison of local versus long-distance networks

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We are moving away from the hierarchical concept (though slowly) to one using more direct routes.

In Pakistan we Prefer hierarchical structure with almost three to four levels in the hierarchy .
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LINK LIMITATION ITU-T Organization recommends that there be , except for very large countries where 14 links may be acceptable On an international connection, the , each 4 links in tandem as follows: 1. National connection of country originating call 2. International portion 3. National connection of country terminating the call.

link in this context is defined as the connectivity from one exchange to an adjacent exchange serving the international connection
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LINK LIMITATION

ITU-T places this link limitation in the transmission plan to ensure some minimum transmission quality and to provide efficient operation of signaling ,end-to-end

An international connection to illustrate the nomenclature adopted and the maximum number of Irfan Khan links in tandem for an international connection. From ITU-T Rec.G.101

INTERNATIONAL NETWORK International Telephone Routing Plan is contained in ITU-T Rec. E.171. Some of its highlights are: It is not hierarchical. Direct traffic should be routed over final (fully provided) or high usage circuit groups. No more than four international circuits in tandem should be involved between originating and terminating ISCs Advantage should be taken of the noncoincidence of international traffic by use of alternative routings to effect circuit economies and provide route diversity. The routing of transit switched traffic should be so planned to avoid circular routings (ring-around-the-rosy). Irfan Khan

INTERNATIONAL NETWORK When a group consists of both terrestrial and satellite circuits, the choice of routing should be governed by: Total delay of connectivity (<400 ms) including both processing delay and propagation delay The number of satellite circuits in the overall connection. No more than one GEO-link (consists of one up and one down link). Select the circuit that provides the overall better transmission quality

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EXCHANGE LOCATION (TOLL/LONG-DISTANCE NETWORK) Toll Areas

Assignments of toll exchanges regarding numbering &Impact of numbering on routing a call and on accounting equipment.
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Toll Areas

Maximum size of a toll exchange For 0.003 erlangs (see next slide) per subscriber line; thus a 4000line toll exchange could serve just under a million subscribers maximum The exchange capacity should be dimensioned to the forecast long-distance traffic load 10 years after installation.
we must have at least two levels: 1.Local area 2.Toll area. Factors leading to more than two levels are: Geographical size Telephone density, usually per 100 inhabitants Toll traffic trends Political factors

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There are many choices open to the system engineer to establish the route-plan hierarchy
Principal city Fan out:
The maximum number of devices that can be safely driven by the output from a logic gate or logic device (which have only a limited ability to drive other devices from their output terminals). If the fan-out is exceeded the voltage levels corresponding to a logic 1 and a logic 0 become more similar and errors are more likely.

Low fan-out 1 2 3

1 2

4
High fan-out

Figure B is a three-level hierarchy with a four-to-five fan-out at each stage.

For a two-level hierarchy, two possibilities are suggested: Figure C has low initial fan-out, and Figure D has a high one. The choice between C and D may depend on traffic intensity between nodes or availability of routes For national networks, the fan-out in Figure D may be most economical because traffic is Irfan Khan brought to a common point more quickly

Erlang

Erlang =

Calls carried x Mean holding time Observation time period

Considering a group of circuits, traffic intensity in erlangs is the number of call-seconds per second or the number of call-hours per hour A group of 10 circuits had a call intensity of 5 erlangs, we would expect half of the circuits to be busy at the time of measurement. Irfan Khan

NETWORK DESIGN PROCEDURES

The attempt to attain a final design of an optimum national network is a major cut-and-try process. Factors considered for Network Design:
Simple logic demands that the design must first take into account the existing network. Major changes in the network require a large expenditure Technology advances are galloping along. Ten years age of a switch might be the very outside. Even a 5-year-old switch may have to be replaced because of Obsolescence. Signaling on the national and international networks has been standardized on CCITT Signaling System No. 7. But every country or administration has its own national variant of SS No.7 Irfan Khan

NETWORK DESIGN PROCEDURES Design Process Starting from the local exchange, there are now three bases to work from: 1. There are existing local areas, each of which has a toll exchange. 2. There is one or more ISCs placed at the top of the network hierarchy. 3. There will be no more than four links in tandem on any connection to reach an ISC.

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Design Process The entire national geographic area will be made up of small segments, as shown in Figure and each may be represented by a single exchange such as T.
T is a tandem exchange with a fan out of four Class 4 exchange/ Primary center

Four local exchanges, A, B, C, and D homing on T

Areas and exchange relationships

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Design Process The next step is to to and from each T.

This information is organized and tabulated on a

Toll Traffic Matrix (Sample) (in Erlangs)

The convention used here is that values are read from the exchange in the left-hand column to the exchange in the top row. For example, traffic from exchange 1 to exchange 5 is 23 erlangs
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Design Process
It is recommend that a hierarchical structure be established. At the top of a countrys hierarchy is the international switching center.
The earlier AT&T network in the United States was a five-level hierarchy. A typical hierarchical network. The example illustrated here is the North American network circa 1990. Dashed lines show high-usage trunks. Note how the two highest levels are connected in mesh.

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Design Process

Routing structure
The routes in the set will always be tested in the same sequence although some routes may not be available for certain call types The last choice route is the final route in the sense that no traffic streams using this route may overflow further.

The lowest level is not shown in the figure, that of the local exchange.

An example of a hierarchical network with alternative routing.

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Suppose a country had and could be divided into four areas around each center.

We define a as a route from which no traffic can overflow to an alternative route

A sample network design

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TRAFFIC ROUTING IN THE NATIONAL NETWORK

Objective of Routing
The objective of routing is to establish a successful connection between any two exchanges in the network.

The function of traffic routing is the selection of a particular circuit group, for a given call attempt or traffic stream, at an exchange in the network. The choice of a circuit group may be affected by information on the availability of downstream elements of the network on a quasi-real-time basis.
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Network Topology
A network comprises a number of nodes (switching centers) interconnected by circuit groups.
Direct route consists of one or more circuit groups connecting adjacent nodes
Indirect route as a series of circuit groups connecting two nodes providing an end-to-end connection via other nodes

Network Architecture Hierarchy of switching centers (e.g., local area, regional trunk, and international) with each

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A simplified network with circuit groups connecting pairs of nodes with one-way and both-way (two-way) working.
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Routing Scheme

There are fixed routing schemes and dynamic routing schemes

Routing patterns in a network may be fixed, in that changes in route choices for a given type of call attempt require manual intervention.

Such changes may be time-dependent, state dependent and/or eventdependent.

The updating of routing patterns may take place periodically or aperiodically, predetermined, depending on the state of the network or Irfan Khan depending on whether calls succeed or fail.

Time-Dependent Routing

With this type of routing scheme, routing patterns are altered at fixed times during the day (or week) to allow changing traffic demands to be provided for.
State-Dependent Routing

This is a routing scheme where routing patterns vary automatically according to the state of the network. This is adaptive routing.

Each exchange compiles records of successful calls or outgoing trunk group occupancies. This information is then distributed through the network to other exchanges or passed to a centralized database.

Concept of state-dependent routing

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Event-Dependent Routing

Routing patterns are updated locally on the basis of whether calls succeed or fail on a given route choice.

Each exchange has a list of choices, and the updating favors those choices which succeed and discourage those which suffer congestion.

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Route Selection
The action to select a definite route for a specific call.
The selection can be sequential or nonsequential.

is where the routes in a set are always tested in sequence and the first available route is selected.
routing, the routes in a set are tested in no specific order.

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The decision to select a route can be based on :

The state of the outgoing circuit group or the states of the series of circuit groups in the route. The incoming path of entry

Class of service ( Voice, data)

Type of call (Operator, Ordinary subscriber, test call etc)

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Call Control Procedures

Call control procedures define the entire set of interactive signals necessary to establish, maintain, and release connection between exchanges. Two types of call control procedures are: 1. Progressive Call Control

Progressive call control uses link-by-link Signaling to pass supervisory controls sequentially from one exchange to the next In the irreversible case, call control is always passed downstream toward the destination exchange.
Call control is reversible when it can be passed backwards (maximum one node), toward the originating exchange.

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2.Originating Call Control Originating call control requires that the originating exchange maintain control of the call setup until a connection between originating and terminating exchanges has been completed.

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Applications
Automatic Alternative Routing
One type of progressive (irreversible) routing is automatic alternative routing (AAR). There are two principal types of this routing available: 1. When there is a choice of direct circuit groups between the two exchanges.

2. When there is a choice of direct and indirect routes between the two exchanges.

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Automatic Rerouting (Crankback)

Automatic rerouting is a routing facility enabling connection of call attempts encountering congestion during the initial call setup phase. If a signal indicating congestion is received from exchange B, subsequent to the seizure of an outgoing trunk from exchange A, the call can be rerouted at exchange A.

Blocking from B to D activates signal S1 to A. Blocking from D to F activates signal S2 to A. Irfan Khan

Load Sharing

Routing schemes can be developed to ensure that call attempts are offered to route choices according to a preplanned distribution.

Each outgoing routing pattern (A, B, C, D) may include alternative routing options.
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Dynamic Routing Examples

Example State-Dependent Routing
A centralized routing processor is employed to select optimum routing patterns on the basis of actual occupancy levels of the circuit groups and exchanges in the network which are monitored on a periodic basis. This routing technique inherently incorporates fundamental principles of network management in determining routing patterns. These include: Avoiding occupied circuit groups. Not using overloaded exchanges for transit. In overload circumstances, restriction of routing direction connections.

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Example of Time-Dependent Routing.

For each originating and terminating exchange pair, a particular route pattern is planned depending on the time of day and the day of the week. This type of routing takes advantage of idle circuit capacity in other possible routes between originating and terminating exchanges which may exist due to noncoincident busy hours.

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Example of Event-Dependent Routing In a fully connected network, calls between each originating and terminating exchange pair try the direct route with a two-link alternative path selected dynamically. This type of routing scheme routes traffic away from congested links by retaining routing choices where calls are successful. It is simple, adapts quickly to changing traffic patterns, and requires only local information.

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The long-distance network is entirely four-wire. As the network is extended, delay becomes more of a problem. Delay has two components: Propagation Processing time

Echo in telephone systems is the return of a talkers voice. Echo is a reflection of voice. The cause of echo is impedance mismatches that might be present any place in the electrical telephone connection.
Two factors determine the degree of annoyance of echo: its and its

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Singing is the result of sustained oscillations due to positive feedback in telephone amplifiers or amplifying circuits Circuits that sing are unusable and promptly overload multiplex equipment, particularly FDM equipment. Singing may be regarded as echo that is completely out of control. This can occur at the frequency at which the circuit is resonant.
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The mismatch is usually between the two-wire side and the hybrid, where the balancing transformer provides the other side of the match. Impedance match is described by a term called return loss. The higher the return loss value, the better the match.

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We relate return loss, measured in dB, to the impedances of the two-wire line we call L and the balancing network N by:

If the balancing network (N) perfectly matches the impedance of the two-wire line (L), then ZN = ZL and return loss would be infinite.
We use the term balance return loss ( ITU-T Rec. G.122 ) and classify it as two types: 1. Balance return loss from the point of view of echo (Echo return loss). This is the return loss measured between the frequencies 300 and 3400 Hz. 2. Balance return loss from the point of view of stability. This is the return loss measured between 0 and 4000 Hz.
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 Improved return loss at the term set (hybrid). Adding loss on the four-wire side (or on the two-wire side). Reducing the gain of the individual four-wire amplifiers.

Echo paths in a four-wire circuit

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Delay is measured in one-way or round-trip propagation time measured in milliseconds.

Practice in North America . where echo delay is less than that, then echo can be controlled by adding loss.
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