CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES CPI 201T-2013

Lecture 2 By

Dr Alex Sofianos
Bsc Chem Eng, Msc, PhD Ind Chem (GERMANY), MBL (UNISA)

Course Contents
1. Introduction 2. Catalysis 3. Inorganic Bulk Commodity Chemicals 4. Synthesis Gas Processes 5. Petroleum Refining 6. Polymerisation and Petrochemicals 7. Organic Chemical Process Industries 8. Cement, Glass, Dyes Manufacturing 9. Hydrometallurgical Processes 10. Environmental Issues and Green Chemistry
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Production of Materials
Humans have always exploited their natural environment for all their needs including food, clothing and shelter. As the cultural development of humans continued, they looked for a greater variety of materials to cater for their needs. The 20th century explosion in both the use of traditional materials and in the research for development of a wider range of materials to satisfy technological developments. Major Factor: Reduction in availability of the traditional resources to supply the increasing world population.
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Production of Materials
Chemists and chemical engineers continue to play a pivotal role in the search for new sources for substitution of traditional materials such as those from the petrochemical industry. As the fossil organic reserves dwindle, new sources of the organic chemicals presently used are sought and New materials (polymers, carbon-based composites) are developed to replace those have been deemed no longer satisfactory

Industrial Chemistry
Industry uses chemical reactions to produce chemicals for use by society.
Many chemicals have been produced to replace naturally occurring chemicals that are no longer available or their sourcing is not economically viable any more. Industrial chemical processes cover the full range of reactions but concentration on some case studies is sufficient to illustrate the range of reactions and the role of chemists and chemical engineers involved in these processes.
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Industrial Chemistry
This study of some case studies would allow:
some insight into the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the chemical industry the evaluation of processes suitable and necessary for efficient and environmentally benign production CPI 201T should help increase students understanding of the history, current condition and future applications of these industries, very important for the economy of any country, which ultimately will rely on beneficiation of local and other African-mined raw materials
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Introduction
The chemical process industry includes those manufacturing facilities whose products result from: a) chemical reactions between organic materials, or inorganic materials, or both;
a) extraction, separation, or purification of a natural product, with or without the aid of chemical reactions; a) the preparation of specifically formulated mixtures of materials, either natural or synthetic.
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Introduction
Examples of products from the chemical process industry are:

plastics, resins, dyes, pharmaceuticals, paints, soaps, detergents, petrochemicals, perfumes, Inorganics (fertilizers) synthetic organic materials.
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Introduction
Examples of processes from the chemical process industry are: Many of these processes involve a number of unit operations of chemical engineering depending on the size definition of a plant, In addition, such basic chemical reactions (processes) as - polymerization,
- oxidation, - reduction, - hydrogenation, and the like.
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Introduction
What is industrial chemistry (CPI)?
The development, optimization and monitoring of fundamental chemical processes used in industry for transforming raw materials and precursors into useful commercial products for society.

Why is it relevant to you?

Industrial chemistry plays a vital role as an applied science in diverse areas influencing human society ranging from economic, environmental and political stability through job creation
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Goals

Goals we set to achieve with this course

Define, describe, and apply basic chemical processes involved in the production of major commercial products used in society. Develop critical skills at analyzing the cost / benefit / impact of traditional industrial chemical processes on society as a whole. Appreciate the role and apply the concepts of green chemistry for efficient yet sustainable industrial chemical processes with low impact on the environment and human health.

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Introduction II
Course strategy: Hints on how to succeed in this course (CPI)?
Try to attend every class on time and conscientiously do assigned reading and problem sets. This is particularly important as there are no textbooks for this course Actively participate in class/group discussions. Relate knowledge gained in class which can be applied to real-world problems. Creative contributions to group project and presentations.
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Introduction II
Course strategy: Hints on how to succeed in this course (CPI)? During the course, compile a concise set of notes from lecture and material that includes basic principles and equations of chemical analysis (useful for final exam). Questions or doubts about the material being taught can be discussed in class, drop-by for a visit in my office or send an e-mail message. Working in groups for support throughout the term is very important. But most important of all, do not get scared of the material keep an open mind, relax and try to have fun!
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Introduction III
Textbooks
1. Chemical Process Technology ,

2.
3.

4.
5.

J. Moulijn, M. Makkee, A. v. Diepen (2008) Shreves Chemical Process Industries , 5th Edition, G. T. Austin (1984) Industrial Organic Chemistry, 4rth Edition, H.-J. Arbe (2010) Industrial Inorganic Chemistry, K.-H. Bchel(2000) Industrial Organic Chemicals, 2nd edition by H.A. Wittcoff, B.G. Reuben,J.S. Plotkin, Wiley-Interscience (2004).
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Introduction III
Encyclopedias of Industrial Chemistry
1. 2. Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Seventh Edition (2005) Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology Sixth Edition (2006) Internet Documents, Wikipedia etc.

3.

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Introduction III
Periodicals and Journals
ChemTech Chemical & Engineering News Chemical Week Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research Chemical Engineer Manufacturing Chemist Chemical Market Reporter Chemistry & Industry Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik Applied Catalysis
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Largest Chemical Companies In The World 2007 (by Turnover in Billion US$)

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Inorganic Bulk Chemicals

Sulphuric Acid Contact Process Phosphoric Acid Lurgi- Fisons Process Ammonia Haber-Bosch Process Nitric Acid Ostwald Process Urea and Fertilizers Sodium Hydroxide Chloralkali Process Chlorine Chloralkali Process Soda Ash Solvay Process
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Synthesis Gas Processes

Synthesis Gas Production
Coal Gasification Steam Reforming of Methane

Water Gas Shift Reaction Fischer-Tropsch Process (GTL technology) Methanol Synthesis Methanol Conversion to Chemicals The Methanol Economy
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Petroleum Refining
Petroleum Composition Fractional Distillation Hydrotreating Thermal Cracking Catalytic Cracking Catalytic Reforming Down Stream Operations
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Polymerization Processes
Fundamentals of Polymers industry Precursors from Petrochemical Industry
Ethylene, propylene, vinyl chloride, styrene, butadiene ethyl terethalate, tetra fluorethylene, urethane

Catalytic Polymerisation Addition Polymerisation (Chain Growth) Radicals-induced Polymerisation Polymer Properties (MW, Crystallinity, Glass
Transition Temperature, etc.)
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Petrochemicals
Chemical intermediates derived from petroleum
(NB: they can be obtained from other sources as well: natural gas, biomass such as corn, sugar cane) coal,

Petrochemical classes:
- olefins (ethylene, propylene, butadiene etc.) - BTX aromatics (benzene, toluene, xylene, styrene, etc.) - alkanes (methane, ethane, propane etc.)

Industrial products from petroleum:

LPG (propane) for heating, liquid fuels (gasoline, diesel, kerosene, lubricant, motor oils and greases, wax, sulphur, asphalt, coke, solvents and monomers for polymerisation tar,

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Petrochemicals II

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Organic Chemical Process Industries

Adipic acid (precursor of Nylon) TNT (Explosives) - Tri nitro toluene Paints and Varnish Phthalic anhydride (poly ethylene terephthalate polyester) Soaps and detergents Printing inks Synthetic fibers (polyester) Synthetic rubber (butadiene polymers) Various plastics (polyethylene, polypropylene, poly vinyl chloride, polystyrene, poly butadiene, poly ethylene terethalate, poly tetra fluor ethylene (Teflon), poly urethane varnishes)
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Organic Chemical Process Industries

Products derived from propylene

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Organic Chemical Process Industries

Products derived from benzene

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Products Derived From Benzene

Story behind flowsheet

The operators of coking plants and one processing plant for tar benzene became the shareholders of Arsol Aromatics GmbH
The company produces high quality aromatic raw materials such as benzene, toluene, xylenes and arsol ( a solvent)
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Story behind flowsheet

The Arsol Aromatics GmbH is manufacturing chemical raw materials mainly of crude benzene, which is a by product in coking plants of its shareholders The chemical materials, which are manufactured at the Arsol Aromatics production plant, are called aromatics. This name is the result of the characteristic aromatic or perfume-like smell. The main parts of this group are benzene, toluene and xylenes. They are used as raw material for many different goods of consumption.
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Story behind flowsheet

Benzene is a colourless liquid occurring naturally in fossil raw materials such as crude oil and hard coal. It is a basic chemical in the manufacturing of a wide range of everyday items.
Benzene has been attacked in the press as a hazardous product (human carcinogen!!!) Benzene is used within the chemical industry to produce other chemicals, which are used to make consumer goods. All handling and application of benzene must meet strict international standards to protect the consumer from any risk.
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Consumer Products from Benzene

CD's, CD jewel boxes toys engine oil surfactants video and audio cassettes pharmaceuticals, medical devices latex matresses housing insulation food packaging detergents phenolic resins for plywood safety helmets automotive plastics sports equipment tyres plastic glasses computer housings hosiery insulation

Many items taken for granted in our modern, everyday lives rely on products made by the aromatics industry. Whether you are jogging around the block or competing for the Olympics aromatics are providing you with state-of-the art 30 equipment.

Consumer Products from Toluene

Toluene is a colourless liquid, also deriving from crude oil or coal tar. Its major end-products are polyurethanes; these are very important for the production of the foam used in furniture, mattresses, car seats, insulation for buildings, coatings for floors and furniture, and refrigerators. Furthermore Polyurethanes are also used for artificial sports track, jogging shoes and in roller blade wheels Examples: 1.foam for furniture and insulation, matresses, car seats 2.coatings for floors, 3.coatings for furniture and 4.coatings for refrigerators 5.dye carrier 6. jogging shoes 7.carbonless paper 8.building insulation 9.roller blade wheels
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Consumer Products from Xylene

Xylene is a colourless liquid deriving from crude oil or coal tar. There are several chemical forms of xylene; among these, paraxylene is commercially the most important. Paraxylene is used to make polyesters, which have applications in clothing, packaging and plastic bottles. The most widely-used polyester is polyethylene terephthalate (PET), used in lightweight, recyclable soft drink bottles, as well as in fibres for clothing, and fillings for anoraks and duvets, in car tyre cords and conveyor belts. It can also be made into a film used in video and audio tapes, as well as in x-ray films. Another chemical form of xylene, orthoxylene, is used to make pipes, coatings and cables for medical application. Examples: 1.conveyor belts 2.PET bottles 3.filling of anoraks and duvets 4.fibres for clothing and carpeting 5.video and audiotapes 6.cable coatings 7.x-ray 8.sports equipment 9.plastic pipes 10.cables
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Cement, Glass, Dyes

Manufacturing

Limestone (CaCO3) with clay (Al2O3) and quarz (SiO2) Heated together at 1450 oC (long Rotary Kiln) Calcination Klinker Chemically: CO2 released and quicklime (CaO) formed, which reacts to calcium silicates Klinker milled very fine and gypsum (CaSO4.1/2H2O) is added (less than 10%) Other ingredients are iron and magnesium oxides Potland cement is obtained What is hydraulic cement?
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Flow Sheet of a Process

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Industrial Chemistry - Fundamentals

Chemical Reactions Stoichiometry Reaction Yields Thermochemistry Equilibrium Equilibrium Constants LeChateliers Principle Kinetics Rate Expressions Temperature Effect Catalysis
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Industrial Chemistry
Industrial Considerations
Reaction Evaluation Selection Economic Feasibility Thermodynamic Feasibility Kinetic Feasibility Chemical Plant Operation Material Balance Energy Flow Raw Materials Safety Pollution
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Thermodynamic Considerations

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Thermodynamic Considerations

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Reactor Choice Considerations

Systems in which chemical reactions take place are called Reactors Chemical Reaction Engineering is the engineering activity concerned with the application of chemical reactions on a commercial scale
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Reactor Choice Considerations REACTORS occupy a central role in every chemical process
It is inside reactors that a bulk of chemical transformations take place
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Reactor Design & Operation

Three crucial questions:
How fast do reactions occur? Chemical Kinetics
Maximum yields achievable? Chemical Thermodynamics Optimal Scale of operation? Chemical Reactor Engineering
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Chemical reaction engineering

Chemical reaction engineering involves the application of basic chemical engineering principles to the analysis and design of chemical reactors. Many of the operations in a chemical plant support the chemical reactor.
Heat exchange, separations etc. may be used to pre-treat the reactor feed and then to separate the reactor effluent into constituent parts. A complete understanding of reactor analysis require knowledge & understanding of all the basic chemical engineering principles.
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Chemical reaction engineering

In typical chemical processes the capital and operating costs of the reactor may be only 10 to 25% of the total, with separation units dominating the size and cost of the process.

Yet the performance of the chemical reactor totally controls the costs and modes of operation of these expensive separation units, and thus the chemical reactor largely controls the overall economics of most processes.
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Chemical reaction engineering

Improvements in the reactor usually have enormous impact on upstream and downstream separation processes. IN REALITY We usually encounter an existing reactor that may have been built decades ago, has been modified repeatedly, and operates far from the conditions of initial design. Very rarely we have the opportunity to design a reactor from scratch.
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Chemical reaction engineering

CHALLENGES ? The chemical engineer never encounters a single reaction in an ideal single phase isothermal reactor. Real reactors are extremely complex with multiple reactions, multiple phases, and intricate flow patterns within the reactor and in inlet and outlet streams. An engineer needs enough information to understand the basic concepts of reactions, flow, and heat management and how these interact.
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Chemical reaction engineering

CHALLENGES II? The chemical engineer almost never has kinetics for the process she or he is working on. The problem of solving the batch or continuous reactor mass-balance equations with known kinetics is much simpler than the problems encountered in practice. Reaction rates in useful situations are seldom known, and even if these data were available, they frequently would not be particularly useful. Many industrial processes are mass-transfer limited so that reaction kinetics are irrelevant or at least thoroughly disguised by the effects of mass and heat transfer.
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Chemical reaction engineering

Questions of catalyst poisons and promoters, activation and deactivation, and heat management dominate most industrial processes.

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Chemical Reactors and their Applications

Reactor Concepts
Fixed bed reactors Fluidized bed reactors

Stirred tank reactors

Slurry loop reactors Bubble columns
Chemical Reactors and their Applications

Fixed Bed Reactors

Summary Advantages/Disadvantages
High conversion is possible Large temperature gradients may occur Inefficient heat-exchange Suitable for slow- or non-deactivating processes

Chemical Reactors and their Applications

Fixed Bed Reactors

Concept Collection of fixed solid particles. The particles may serve as a catalyst or an adsorbent. Continuous gas flow (Trickling liquid)

Applications
Synthesis gas production Methanol synthesis Ammonia synthesis Fischer-Tropsch synthesis Gas cleaning (adsorption)
Chemical Reactors and their Applications

Fixed Bed Reactors

Challenges/Limitations Temperature control Pressure drop Catalyst deactivation

Chemical Reactors and their Applications

Fixed Bed Reactors

Single-Bed Reactor
All the particles are located in a single vessel

Advantages/Disadvantages
Easy to construct Inexpensive Applicable when the reactions are not very exo-/endothermic

Chemical Reactors and their Applications

Fixed Bed Reactors

Multi-Bed Reactor
Several serial beds with intermediate cooling/heating stages

Advantages/Disadvantages
Applicable for exo-/endothermic reactions

Chemical Reactors and their Applications

Fixed Bed Reactors

NH3 reactor SO3 reactor

Chemical Reactors and their Applications

Fixed Bed Reactors

Multi-Tube Reactor
Several tubes of small diameter filled with particles.

Advantages/Disadvantages
Expensive High surface area for heat exchange Very good very temperature control Applicable for very exo/endothermic reactions
Chemical Reactors and their Applications

Fixed Bed Reactors

Steam reformer

Reactor height: Number of tubes: Tube length:

30 m 40-10000 6-12 m

Tube diameter:

70-160 mm

Chemical Reactors and their Applications

Fluidized Bed Reactors

Concept Collection of solid particles dispersed in a continuous phase. The particles may serve as a catalyst, adsorbent or a heat carrier. Continuous flow of gas or liquid

Applications
Catalytic cracking processes Fischer-Tropsch synthesis Polymerization Waste combustion Drying
Chemical Reactors and their Applications

Fluidized Bed Reactors

Chemical Reactors and their Applications

HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS

AN INTRODUCTION

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT
27 % of GDP and 90 % of chemical industry involve products made using catalysts (food, fuels, polymers, textiles, pharma/agrochemicals,etc) For discovery/use of alternate sources of energy/fuels/ raw materials for chemical industry. For Pollution control - Global warming For preparation of new materials (organic & inorganic-eg: Carbon Nanotubes).

Catalysis - Multidisciplinary
The catalyst is an inorganic solid; Catalysis is a surface phenomenon; Solid state and surface structures play important roles. Adsorption, desorption and reaction are subject to thermodynamic, transport and kinetic controls(chem. engineering); adsorbate-substrate and adsorbate - adsorbate interactions are both electrostatic and chemical (physical chemistry). The chemical reaction is organic chemistry
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Catalysis - Base for Green Chemistry

Pollution control(air and waste streams; stationary and mobile) Clean oxidation / halogenation processes using oxygen, hydrogen peroxide(C2H4O, C3H6O, ECH) Avoiding toxic chemicals in industry ( HF, COCl2 etc.)

Fuel cells( H2 generation)

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Catalysis Basis of Nanotechnology

Methods of catalyst preparation: are most suited for the preparation of nanomaterials
Nano dimensions of catalysts. Common preparation methods.

Common Characterization tools.

Catalysis in the preparation of carbon nanotubes.ollution control(air and waste streams; stationary and mobile)
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Catalysis-Milestones in Evolution
1814- Kirchhoff: starch to sugar by acid. 1817- Davy: coal gas(Pt,Pd selective but not Cu,Ag,Au,Fe) 1820s - Faraday: H2 + O2 H2O (Pt); C2H4 and S 1836 - Berzelius coins the name: Catalysis; 1860- Deacons Process 2HCl + 0.5O2 H2O + Cl2 1875- Messel: SO2 + O2 SO3 (Pt); 1880- Mond CH4+H2O CO+3H2 (Ni); 1902- Ostwald: 2NH3+2.5O2 2NO+3H2O(Pt); 1902- Sabatier: C2H4+H2 C2H6 (Ni). 1905- Ipatieff: Clays for acid catalysed reactions; isomerisation, alkylation, polymerisation.
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Catalysis-Milestones (con'd)
NH3 synthesis (Haber,Mittasch) Methanol synthesis (ZnO-Cr2O3) BASF; Taylor (active sites); BET (surface area) Langmuir-Hinshelwood & Eley -Rideal models ; Fischer - Tropsch synthesis Process Engg; FCC / alkylates;acid-base catalysis;Reforming and Platforming. 1950-70: Role of diffusion; Zeolites, Shape Selectivity; Bifunctional cata;oxdn cat-HDS; Syngas and H2 generation. 1970: Surface Science approach to catalysis (Ertl) 1910-20: 1920-30: 1920-30: 1930: 1930: 1930-50:

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Catalysis-Milestones (con'd)
1990 - Today: Assisted catalyst design using : surface chem of metals/oxides, coordination chemistry kinetics, catalytic reaction engineering novel materials (micro/mesoporous materials) new processes (Green Chemistry)

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Catalysis in the Chemical Industry

Hydrogen Industry (coal, NH3, methanol, FT, hydrogenations / HDT, fuel cell). Natural gas processing (SR, ATR, WGS, POX) Petroleum refining (FCC, HDW, HDT, HCr, REF) Petrochemicals(monomers,bulk chemicals). Fine Chemicals (pharma, agrochem, fragrance, textile,coating,surfactants,laundry etc) Environmental Catalysis (autoexhaust, deNOx, DOC)

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Definition of a Catalyst
Catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of the reaction at which a chemical system approaches equilibrium , without being substantially consumed in the process A Catalyst affects only the rate of the reaction, i.e. the Kinetics. It changes neither the thermodynamics of the reaction nor the equilibrium composition

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Definition of a Catalyst
It changes neither the thermodynamics of the reaction nor the equilibrium composition Thermodynamics says NOTHING about the rate of a reaction. Thermodynamics : Will a reaction occur ? Kinetics : If so, how fast ? A reaction may have a large, negative DGrxn, but the rate may be so slow that there is no evidence of it occurring.
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Definition of a Catalyst
Example Conversion of graphite to diamonds is a thermodynamically favored process (DG negative).

C (graphite) C (diamond)
Kinetics makes this reaction nearly impossible (Requires a very high pressure and temperature over long time) Conclusion: A reaction may have a large, negative DGrxn, but the rate may be so slow that there is no evidence of it occurring.
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Example of a Catalytic Reaction

Conversion hydrogen and oxygen to water

H2+0.5O2 H2O; D G 0298 = -58 Kcal/mol; In the gas phase:

Dissociation energies

D(H-H) = 103 Kcal/mol ; D(O-O)=117 Kcal/mol; E# ~ 10 Kcal/mol for H+O2 or H2+O HO2 or H2O. Hence, kinetically gas-phase reaction improbable. Catalytic reaction Pt forms Pt-H and Pt-O bonds with E# ~ 0;Moreover, Pt-H + Pt-O Pt-OH Pt -OH2 has E# ~ 0 .
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Kinetic Vs. Thermodynamic

Reaction path for conversion of A + B into AB

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Activation Energy
Activation Energy : The energy required to overcome the reaction barrier. Usually given a symbol Ea or G
The Activation Energy (Ea) determines how fast a reaction occurs, the higher Activation barrier, the slower the reaction rate. The lower the Activation barrier, the faster the reaction

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Activation Energy
Catalyst lowers the activation energy for both forward and reverse reactions.

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Activation Energy

This means , the catalyst changes the reaction path by lowering its activation energy and consequently the catalyst increases the rate of reaction.
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How a Heterogeneous Catalyst works ?

Substrate has to be adsorbed on the active sites of the catalyst

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Absorption and Adsorption

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

H H HH H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

H2 adsorption on palladium

H2 absorption palladium hydride

Surface process

bulk process

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Adsorption
In physisorption 1. The bond is a van der Waals interaction

2. adsorption energy is typically 5-10 kJ/mol. ( much weaker than a typical chemical bond )
3. many layers of adsorbed molecules may be formed.

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Adsorption
For Chemisorption 1. The adsorption energy is comparable to the energy of a chemical bond. 2. The molecule may chemisorp intact (left) or it may dissociate (right). 3. The chemisorption energy is 30-70 kJ/mol for molecules and 100-400 kJ/mol for atoms.

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Characteristics of Chemi- and Physisorptions

DE(ads) < DE(ads)
Chemisorption large minima formation of surface chemical bonds

E(d)

Physisorption small minima weak Van der Waal attraction forces

CO
physisorption

physisorption/ desorption chemisorption

atomic chemisorption

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Adsorption and Catalysis

Adsorbent: surface onto which adsorption can occur.
example: catalyst surface, activated carbon, alumina Adsorbate: molecules or atoms that adsorb onto the substrate. example: nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, water Adsorption: the process by which a molecule or atom adsorb onto a surface of substrate. Coverage: a measure of the extent of adsorption of a specie onto a surface
H H H H H H H H H

adsorbate

coverage q = fraction of surface sites occupied

H H H H H

adsorbent

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Adsorption Mechanisms
Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanisms: 1. Adsorption from the gas-phase

2. Desorption to the gas-phase

3. Dissociation of molecules at the surface 4. Reactions between adsorbed molecules Two Questions: Is the reaction has a Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism? What is the precise nature of the reaction steps? Cannot be solved without experimental or computational studies
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Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanisms
Example The Reaction A2 + 2B = 2AB

may have the following mechanism A2 + * = A2* A2* + * = 2A* B + * = B* A* + B* = AB* + * AB* = AB + *

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Adsorption Mechanisms
Eley-Rideal mechanism: 1. Adsorption from the gas-phase

2. Desorption to the gas-phase

3. Dissociation of molecules at the surface 4. Reactions between adsorbed molecules 5. Reactions between gas and adsorbed molecules The last step cannot occur in a Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism

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Eley-Rideal mechanism
Example The reaction A2 + 2B = 2AB may have the following Eley-Rideal mechanism A2 + * = A2* A2* + * = 2A* A* + B = AB + * where the last step is the direct reaction between the adsorbed molecule A* and the gas-molecule B.

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Eley-Rideal or Langmuir-Hinshelwood?
For the Eley-Rideal mechanism: the rate will increase with increasing coverage until the surface is completely covered by A*. For the Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism: the rate will go through a maximum and end up at zero, when the surface is completely covered by A*. This happens because the step B + * = B*

cannot proceed when A* blocks all sites. The trick is that the step B + * = B* requires a free site.
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Catalyst Preparation
(1) Unsupported Catalyst Usually very active catalyst that do not require high surface area e.g., Iron catalyst for ammonia production (Haber process)

(2) Supported Catalyst requires a high surface area support to disperse the primary catalyst the support may also act as a co-catalyst (bi-functional) or secondary catalyst for the reaction (promoter)

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Supported Catalyst
Highly dispersed metal on metal oxide
Nickel clusters

SiO2
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Molecules in Zeolite Cages and Frameworks

+ p-xylene

ZSM-5

Paraffins Y-zeolite
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What is ZSM-5 Catalyst ?

It is an abbreviation for (Zeolite Scony Mobile Number 5 ) First synthesized by Mobil Company in 1972 It replaces many Homogeneous Catalysts were many petrochemical processes ZSM-5 has two diameters for its pores : d1= 5.6 , d2= 5.4 Where as, Zeolite Y has a diameter = 7.4 used in

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Different Zeolite Catalysts

ZSM-5 has two diameters for its pores : d1= 5.6 , d2= 5.4 Where as, Zeolite Y has a diameter = 7.4

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THANK YOU

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