Wagner - Class 3 1

the strength of common materials is actually

dictated not so much by bond strength but by
something else:


Defects
Wagner - Class 3 2
Griffiths equation for the strength of materials
2
1
2
|
.
|

\
|
=
a
E
t

o
a = length of defect
= surface energy

Thus, going from the macroscale to the atomic scale (via the
nanoscale), defects progressively become smaller and/or are
eliminated, which is why the strength increases (see equation).
Note that the Griffith model predicts that defects have no
effect on the modulus, only on strength
But note: the model also predicts that defects of zero length
lead to infinitely strong materials, an obvious impossibility!
Wagner - Class 3 3
NANOSCALE Vs MICROSCALE
Griffiths experiments
with glass fibers (1921)
FIBER DIAMETER (micron)
Strength of bulk
glass: 170 MPa
Extrapolates to
11 GPa
1
2
3
T
E
N
S
I
L
E

S
T
R
E
N
G
T
H

(
G
P
a
)

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 0
Wagner - Class 3 4
Materials strength is critically sensitive to defects
Example: surface cracks

What is the weakening effect due to a defect
at the surface of a fiber ?

Physically: Without any defect, the measured
(applied) strength o
0
would equal the
theoretical strength (although Griffiths
model doesnt predict this)

Case 1 Semi-circular defect at fiber surface

We use the classical analytical solution of
Inglis:

o
0
o
0
Wagner - Class 3 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
2
2
2
2
0
xx
x
a 3
x
a
1
2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
o
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
o
o
4
4
2
2
0
yy
x
a 3
x
a
2
2
1


o
/
o
0
X/a
INGLIS, 1913
Wagner - Class 3 6
A
If x = a (point A), then o
YYlocal
= 3o
0


If the local stress reaches the theoretical
strength, then the applied stress (o
0
) at failure is
o
0
= o
th
/3

And assuming o
th
E/10, we get, at failure:

o
0
~ E/30


A more realistic situation is that of a sharper crack:
o
0
o
0
Wagner - Class 3 7
Case 2 Sharp (elliptical) defect at fiber surface

Inglis result in this case is, at point A:




a = crack length
r = radius of curvature at A.
o
0
A
0
2 1 o o
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
r
a
YYlocal
o
0
a
So again, if , and a = 1 micron,
and r = 20 , then at fracture

And thus:

0
46o o =
l theoretica
l theoretica local
o o =
46
0
l theoretica
o
o = o
0
~ E/460
Wagner - Class 3 8
Therefore, defects are indeed
a major source of material weakness
Defects are the major players for strength (and for other
physical properties too!)
Griffiths experiments and model are the historical basis of
the fracture mechanics approach
There is also a probabilistic approach to strength: why do
we need it at all? Because there is a whole population of
defects present at the surface of fibers and within the bulk
too, with varying degrees of severity. And because fibers
come in bundle form, which consist of hundreds or
thousands of fibers in parallel. Examples: carbon fiber
bundle; bamboo; Achilles tendon;
All the fibers may follow the same statistical strength
distribution BUT not necessarily the same worst defect
characteristics!
Wagner - Class 3 9
The strength of fibers is statistical
2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
B O R O N F I L A M E N T S
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

t
e
s
t
s
Tensile strength (GPa)
Wagner - Class 3 10
Probabilistic argument
Freudenthal [A.M. Freudenthal, in H. Liebowitz, ed., Fracture, Vol. 2,
Academic Press, New York, 592 (1968)] proposed a link between the
probability of occurrence of a critical defect, F(V), in a solid of
(dimensionless) volume V, the concentration of defects, and the
size (length, area, volume) of a solid:

F(V) = 1 exp[-(V/V
0
)]

where V
0
is the mean volume occupied by a defect (thus: 1/V
0
is
the mean cc of defects).

Plot:
Wagner - Class 3 11
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
V
0
=1


P
R
O
B
A
B
I
L
I
T
Y
,

F
(
V
)
VOLUME, V
Probability of occurrence of a critical defect (F(V)= Probability of
failure) against size for a given defect concentration

At very small volume, low P of
occurrence of a critical
defect Thus: strength tends to
be very high

At larger volume, F(V) climbs
rapidly: A plateau is reached where
size has no more effect.

Wagner - Class 3 12
However: no real physics in the previous equation.
How do we draw stress into the picture?
Weibull: The original density of defects in the material (1/V
0
)
increases as the applied stress increases according to some
physical (power) law

(1/V
0
) = (o/o)
|

and therefore:

F(V) = 1 exp[-V (o/o)
|
] (the Weibull Distribution)

o = scale parameter
| = shape parameter
Wagner - Class 3 13
0 1 2 3 4
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
0.5
exponential
1.5
2
|=3
WEIBULL DISTRIBUTION
(o=1)


f
(
x
)
X
Density function: As | increases, the distribution is more narrow, and
o is proportional to the average of the distribution
Wagner - Class 3 14
The effect of size on strength:
The Weakest-Link model for a fiber
Assume that a fiber is viewed as a chain of links or units having
each the same probability of failure F(o) under a stress o.
Probability of survival of a link is 1 F(o)
Probability of survival of a chain (= n links) is [1 F(o)]
n
Probability of failure of the chain is

F
n
(o) = 1 - [1 F(o)]
n

Do this: insert a Weibull distribution for F (thus for a link) and
observe that Weibull is again obtained for F
n
(the fiber), with
the same | but lower o: The larger the specimen, the higher its
P of failure!

Wagner - Class 3 15
1. INTRODUCTION GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND BASIC CONCEPTS
Composites in the real world; Classification of composites; scale effects; the role of
interfacial area and adhesion; three simple models for a-priori materials selection; the role
of defects; Stress and strain; thermodynamics of deformation and Hookes law; anisotropy
and elastic constants; micromechanics models for elastic constants. Measuring the elastic
constants {Lectures 1-3}

2. MATERIALS FOR COMPOSITES: FIBERS, MATRICES
Types and physical properties of fibers; flexibility and compressive behavior; stochastic
variability of strength; Limits of fiber performance; types and physical properties of
matrices; combining the phases: residual thermal stresses; {Lectures 4-5}

3. THE PRINCIPLES OF FIBER REINFORCEMENT
Stress transfer; The model of Cox; The model of Kelly & Tyson; Other model; {Lectures
6-7}

4. INTERFACES IN COMPOSITES
Basic issues, wetting and contact angles, interfacial adhesion, the fragmentation
phenomenon, microRaman spectroscopy, transcrystalline interfaces, {Lectures 8-9}

5. FRACTURE PHYSICS OF COMPOSITES
Griffith theory of fracture, current models for idealized composites, stress
concentration, simple mechanics of materials, micromechanics of composite strength,
composite toughness, measuring the strength and fracture toughness, indentation and
nanoindentation testing {Lectures 10-12}

6. DESIGN EXAMPLE
A composite flywheel {Lecture 13}

7. THE FUTURE:
Composites based on nanoreinforcement, composites based on biology, ribbon- and
platelet-reinforced materials, biomimetic concepts {Lectures 14-15}

Wagner - Class 3 16
Last topics in the Basic Concepts Section
Stress and strain brief review of definitions
Thermodynamics of deformation and Hookes law
Anisotropy and elastic constants Relevance to
composite materials

Stress
(old concept Hooke in the 1680s; Cauchy & Poisson in the
1820s)
Continuum view of materials no molecules (so that field
quantities such as displacement, stress, etc can be defined as
continuous functions of space and time), and homogeneity.


Wagner - Class 3 17
Stress (ctd)
Stress = force/area
The state of stress at a point in a continuum can be represented
by 9 stress components o
ij
(i,j = 1,2,3) acting on the sides of an
elemental cube with sides parallel to the axes 1,2,3 of a
reference coordinate system:
Wagner - Class 3 18
Stress is a tensor with 9 components (o
ij
)
First subscript (i) gives the normal to the
plane on which stress acts; Second
subscript defines the direction of the
stress.
The o
ii
components are called normal
stresses, the o
ij
components are called
shear stresses.
Tensile stresses are positive, compressive
stresses are negative.
It can be shown from force equilibrium
considerations, that the shear stress
components are related by o
ij
= o
ji
(ij).
Therefore, we have only 6 independent
components of stress.
Knowledge of all components allow us to
define the stress acting on any plane
within the body.
Wagner - Class 3 19
Strain

A body subject to a state of stress will develop
strains. There are several definitions of strain, the
most usual (used in linear elasticity) is the
engineering strain: c = d/, where is the initial
length.
Strain is dimensionless.
Like stress, strain is a tensor with 9 components, 6 of
them only being independent because c
ij
= c
ji
(ij).


Wagner - Class 3 20
Thermodynamics of deformation The origin
of Hookes law

We assume small deformations in a body;
Those deformations occur slowly so that
thermodynamic equilibrium can be assumed.

Wagner - Class 3 21
Internal stresses are set up within the body, due to deformation.
OBJECTIVE: To find a relation between the applied deformation
(or strains) and induced stresses in the body. (In other words, to
derive Hookes law from basic principles.)

Thermodynamics: an infinitesimal increment of the total (internal)
energy per unit volume dE is equal to the sum of (1) the amount of
heat TdS (T = temperature, S = entropy) acquired by the unit
volume considered and (2) the work done by the internal stresses
due to the deformation (per unit volume),
Thus, we have:


(per unit volume).


ik ik
d TdS dE c o + =
ik ik
dc o
Wagner - Class 3 22
By definition, the (Helmholtz) free energy of the body is | = E-TS
Thus:
ik ik
d SdT d c o | + =
So that for an
isothermal
deformation process
(T = constant), we
have:
T
ik
ik
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
c
|
o
Therefore, we need to know the free energy
per unit volume, |, as a function of c
ik
Wagner - Class 3 23
This is easily calculated: since we have small deformations, |
can be expanded in a Taylor series:
( ) ...
3 ' ' 2 '
0
+ + + + =
ik ik ik ik
c c c | c |
where |
0
is the free energy of the undeformed body, and the
s are given as follows:
....
0
2
2
'
0

c
c
=
c
c
=
ik
ik
ik
ik
c
c
c
|

c
|

Wagner - Class 3 24
By differentiating, we obtain:
... 3 2
2 ' ' '
+ + + =
c
c
ik ik
ik
c c
c
|
And we know that this is equal to o
ik
(for an isothermal
process).
If there is no deformation, there are no internal stresses in
the body, thus o
ik
= 0 for c
ik
= o, from which we obtain = 0.
Thus, no linear term in the expansion of | in powers of c
ik
:
2 '
0 ik
c | | + =
by limiting the expansion to the second order: | ~ c
2
Wagner - Class 3 25
And we can therefore compute the stress tensor in terms of the
strain tensor:
T
ik
ik
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
c
|
o
or
ik ik
c o
'
2 =
This very simple expression provides a linear dependence
between stress and strain: it is the basic form of Hookes law !

Also, remember the connection between Youngs modulus and the
potential from the previous class?
....
0
2
2
'

c
c
=
i k
ik
E
c
c
|

Wagner - Class 3 26
A common general form (valid for anisotropic bodies) of Hookes law
is the following:
kl ijkl ij
C c o =
Where o
ij
and c
kl
are 2d rank tensors and C
ijkl
is a 4
th
rank tensor
with 3x3x3x3 = 81 components [or 9 stress components x 9 strain
components = 81].

The C
ijkl
are called the elastic constants.
Historical parenthesis: Robert Hookes legacy
Wagner - Class 3 27
Elementary concepts of mechanics

In 1676, Robert Hooke makes a discovery about springs:


Wagner - Class 3 28
ut tensio, sic vis
(load ~ stretch)
UNDER TENSION:
Wagner - Class 3 29
Similarly, under bending:
load ~ deflection
Wagner - Class 3 30
Under shear
and torsion:
load ~ shear deformation
load ~ angular
deformation
Wagner - Class 3 31
Thus, in all cases, Hooke observed:
The ratio

applied force/distortion

is a constant for the material.

This is (almost) Hookes Law


Wagner - Class 3 32
Hookes Law
" Modulus "
*
/
/
" constant Spring "
= = =
= =
Area
Length k
Length Distortion
Area Force
Strain
Stress
k
Distortion
Force
This definition is valid whatever the mode of testing
(tension, bending, torsion, shearing, hydrostatic compression, etc,
and a specific modulus is then defined)
Wagner - Class 3 33
The stress-strain curve
Wagner - Class 3 34
A general stress-strain curve
Elastic (fully reversible)
Plastic
(irreversible)
Wagner - Class 3 35
Comparing various stress-strain curves
Wagner - Class 3 36
We focus on Hookes law for various special cases of
material symmetry
There are 9 x 9 = 81 components of C
ijkl
but we know
that only 6 x 6 = 36 of these are independent.
It can also be shown that provided that a strain free
energy function exists, the number of distinct elastic
constants reduces to 21 because C
ijkl
= C
klij
.
Wagner - Class 3 37
The number of elastic constants can be further
reduced as it depends on the crystalline class:
Generally anisotropic materials (triclinic) possess 21
independent elastic constants.
Monoclinic systems (one plane of elastic symmetry)
have 13 non-zero independent moduli.
Orthorombic crystals (3 planes of symmetry
perpendicular to each other) have 9 moduli (remember
polyethylene?). They are termed orthotropic in the
composite materials community.
Wagner - Class 3 38
Class of Material Number of nonzero
coefficients
Number of
independent
coefficients
3D
Triclinic 36 21
Monoclinic 20 13
Orthorombic
[Orthotropic]
12 9
Transversely isotropic 12 5
Isotropic 12 2
2D
Triclinic 9 6
Monoclinic 9 6
Orthorombic
[Orthotropic]
5 4
Transversely isotropic 5 4
Isotropic 5 2
Wagner - Class 3 39
(From J.F. Nye, Physical
Properties of Crystals)
Form of the C
ijkl
matrix
Wagner - Class 3 40
Wagner - Class 3 41
Notations:
o
ij
= C
ijkl
c
kl
(i, j, k, l = 1,2,3)
c
ij
= S
ijkl
o
kl
Historical paradox:
The C
ijkl
are called the Stiffness components
The S
ijkl
are called the Compliance components
Contracted notations in the mechanics of composites:
Wagner - Class 3 42
Contracted notations in the mechanics of composites:
Wagner - Class 3 43
Orthotropic lamina (9 constants)
Observations:

There are no interactions
between normal stresses and
shear strains
There are no interactions
between shear stresses and
normal strains

Wagner - Class 3 44
Wagner - Class 3 45
Transversely isotropic lamina (5 constants)
Wagner - Class 3 46
Isotropic lamina (2 constants)
Wagner - Class 3 47
Orthotropic material under plane stress
In many structural applications, composite materials are used in
the form of thin laminates loaded within the plane of the
laminate. This is a plane stress situation in which all stress
components in the out-of-plane direction (say, the 3-direction)
are zero: o
3
= t
23
= t
4
= t
13
= t
5
= 0
Inserting this into the orthotropic stress-strain relation, we
obtain (after some manipulations):




where (i,j = 1, 2, 6) (4 independent constants)
33
3 3
C
C C
C Q
j i
ij ij
=
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

6
2
1
66
22 12
12 11
6
2
1
0 0
0
0

c
c
t
o
o
Q
Q Q
Q Q
Wagner - Class 3 48
How can we derive relations between mathematical
and engineering constants ?
Stress-strain relations presented before have more
physical/intuitive meaning when expressed in terms of familiar
engineering constants such as the Youngs modulus.
Formal connections between mathematical and engineering
constants are derived from elementary experiments. For
example:
Wagner - Class 3 49
Elementary experiments
Wagner - Class 3 50
Remember: an orthotropic lamina (9 constants)
Wagner - Class 3 51
Example
Uniaxial tensile stress in (say) transverse direction (2) causes a strain
in the 2 direction:



but also in the 1 and 3 directions:

2
2
2 22 2
E
S
o
o c =
2
2 21
2 12 1
E
S
o v
o c =
2
2 23
2 23 3
E
S
o v
o c =
From which we obtain:
2
21
12
E
S
v
=
2
22
1
E
S =
2
23
23
E
S
v
=
Wagner - Class 3 52
All other elementary experiments provide similar links.
Eventually we obtain what we wanted, the stress-strain
relations in terms of engineering constants (E, v, G):
Wagner - Class 3 53
From the symmetry of the compliance matrix S
ij
, we
conclude that:
In general, we conclude that the relations between the
compliances S
ij
and the engineering constants are simple. It
can be shown that the relations between the stiffnesses C
ij

and the engineering constants are more complicated.
Wagner - Class 3 54
Finally, the connection between the stiffness constants C
ij
and
the compliance constants S
ij
are as follows:
Wagner - Class 3 55
Last remarks
In the case of a transversally isotropic material with the 2-3
plane as plane of isotropy, we have:
E
2
= E
3
G
12
= G
13
v
12
= v
13

The 3 engineering constants in the isotropic case are related by



therefore, as necessary, only 2 constants are independent.
( ) v +
=
1 2
E
G