ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY

(BIOLISTRIK K7-8)
Prof. Yasmeiny Yazir BAGIAN FISIOLOGI FK USU

Plasma Membrane
Membrane potential = electrical voltage difference across plasma membrane of cell caused by differences in ion concentrations maintained by plasma membrane proteins Membrane structure phospholipids integral proteins - form channels

Membrane Channels
Two major classes of channels: 1. Leakage channels (non-gated or passive channels) always open more K+ than Na+ channels
- allow influx of Na+, efflux of K+

found in cell body and dendrites 2. Gated channels open/close based on environment found in cell body, dendrites, axon hillock, unmyelinated axons and myelinated axons (nodes of Ranvier)

Types of Gated Channels

chemically

gated* -- respond to neurotransmitters, hormones, ions (e.g,. H+, Ca2+) found in cell bodies and dendrites voltage gated* -- respond to change in membrane potential found in axon hillock, axon mechanically gated -- respond to mechanical change (vibration, pressure, stretch; e.g., stretch or touch receptors)

Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)

Intracellular environment different from extracellular environment in ionic composition

Outside: more Na+, Cl-

Inside: more K+, protein (anion)

Negative inside compared to outside; RMP = -70 mV

Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)

cell membrane with a potential (difference in voltage across membrane) is polarized in neuron, at rest: inside: more K+, protein (anion)
- K+ diffuses out of cell through open K+/ Na+ channels

outside: more Na+, Cl- Na+ diffuses into cell through open K+/ Na+ channels

ion gradients (necessary for passive moment of ions) maintained by Na+/K+ pump (active transport system)

Sodium-Potassium (Na+/K+) Pump

Active transport (requires ATP) uses transport protein in membrane (Na+/K+ Pump) moves 3 Na+ out of cell; 2 K+ into cell sets up and maintains ion gradients necessary for diffusion
Diffusion Diffusion

Types of Potentials
Graded Potential magnitude varies with stimulus more depolarization with stronger stimulus decays away from point of stimulus Action Potential magnitude stays the same once started, passes along axon as nerve impulse

Graded Potential

magnitude varies with stimulus --> allows graded responses localized short-lived membrane may be: hyperpolarized (more negative than resting potential; caused by influx of Cl- efflux of K+), or depolarized (less negative than resting; caused by influx of Na+) at receptor = receptor potential at synapse = synaptic potential

Depolarization and Hyperpolarization

Graded Potential

depolarization starts at area of stimulus spreads by ions moving on either side of membrane (not from outside to inside) larger stimulus opens more channels if membrane reaches threshold (~ -50 to -55 mV), action potential (AP) will be initiated

Action Potential

membrane potential goes from -70 mV to +30 mV then back to -70 mV (after hyperpolarization) all-or-none principle: either start and pass AP, or dont continues once started passed through membrane of excitable cells (neurons and muscles) called nerve impulse when passed through axon

Action Potential (cont)

long-distance communication propagation is unidirectional (one direction away from point of stimulation) includes depolarization, repolarization and undershoot (hyperpolarization) depolarization: -70 mV to +30 mV - based on influx of Na+ repolarization: +30 mV to -70 mV - based on efflux of K+ undershoot (hyperpolarization): -70 mV to -90mV - potassium permeability continues

Events of an Action Potential

AP: Depolarization
stimulus chemically-gated Na+ channels open Na+ influx graded depolarization of dendrite or cell body spreads to axon hillock, if threshold reached voltagegated Na+ channels open (#2 in figure)

Na+ influx (positive feedback)

timed gates on Na+ channels close, K+ channels open for repolarization

AP: Repolarization
Na+ channels closed, gated K+ channels open K+ leaves cell taking + charge with it repolarization (#3)

goes past normal resting potential (hyperpolarization) (#4) gated K+ channels close

Na+/K+ pump returns Na+/K+ levels to resting

AP: Refractory Period

Time during which neuron membrane does not respond normally to additional stimuli Absolute refractory period: time in which a new AP cannot be started Relative refractory period: time in which new AP can only be started by stronger stimulus

Comparison of Graded and Action Potentials

Characteristic Amplitude Graded Potential Variable Action Potential Always the same (all-or-none)

Duration
Channels

Variable (depends on stimulus)

Chemically- or mechanically-gated Dendrites, perikaryon

Rapid membrane change

Voltage-gated

Location
Propagation Refractory period

Axon hillock, axon

Membrane voltage change

Localized (short-distance) Transmitted along axon as impulse None (allows summation) Absolute (no new APs); Refractory (only with stronger stimulus) Depolarization or Depolarization, followed by hyperpolarization repolarization and hyperpolarization

Impulse Conduction

action potential (AP) passed through the axon as an impulse Rapid, transient, self-propagating reversal in membrane potential Raven & Wood, 1976 two types of conduction: continuous saltatory

Continuous Impulse Conduction

involves passage of AP along entire membrane occurs in unmyelinated axons and muscle fibers depolarization/ repolarization occurs in step-wise manner as Na+ and K+ channels open and close in adjacent parts of membrane
direction is one-way due to absolute refractory period shown in light blue

Saltatory Conduction

AP passed from one node of Ranvier to the next occurs in myelinated fibers saves ATP (Na+/K+ pump only used at nodes) faster

Saltatory Conduction

Speed of Conduction Influenced By:

Larger diameter = faster conduction Myelinated axon = faster conduction Saltatory conduction Disease (MS) damage to myelin Chemicals that block channels Alteration of ECF ion concentrations (K+ and Na+)

Stimulus Intensity

affects number of impulses sent per unit time does not affect velocity of conduction also affects number of neurons involved

Factors Influencing Impulse Conduction: Intrinsic Factors

1. Fiber diameter larger (thicker) is faster (because of lower resistance) 2. Degree of myelination myelinated fibers are quicker because of saltatory conduction multiple sclerosis degenerative autoimmune disease in which myelin sheaths of CNS are destroyed by persons own antibodies

Factors Influencing Impulse Conduction: Intrinsic Factors

3. Three groups of fibers: A B C Groups based on: diameter degree of myelination

Fiber Types - Group A

Group A (fastest): largest diameter (thickest) thick myelin sheath conduction velocities of 15-150 m/s include somatic motor and some somatic sensory (from skin, skeletal muscles and joints - touch, pressure, hot/cold, stretch, tension)

Fiber Types - Group B & C

Group B (intermediate): intermediate diameter thin myelin sheath conduction velocities of 3-15 m/s Group C (slowest): small diameter no myelin sheath (continuous conduction) conduction velocities of 1 m/s, or less Group B & C include: autonomic NS motor fibers to viscera sensory fibers from viscera small somatic fibers from skin (pain, some pressure and light touch receptors)

Factors Influencing Speed of Conduction: Extrinsic Factors

Factors other than axon itself 1. temperature due to general influence of heat on chemical reactions warmer goes faster colder goes slower 2. pH decreased pH < 7.35 (increased H+) decreased excitability (depression) increased pH > 7.45 (decreased H+) increased excitability

Extrinsic Factors (cont)

3. excessive or prolonged pressure (interrupts blood flow) 4. inhibitory chemicals reduce membrane permeability to Na+ (harder to depolarize) alcohol, sedatives, anesthetics 5. excitatory chemicals cause easier depolarization caffeine, nicotine 6. Ca2+ levels low Ca2+ - increases excitability high Ca2+ -decreases excitability

Axonal Transport

A Typical Neuron Overview

Dentrites Cell Body Axon Terminal

Figure 8-2: Model neuron

Synapses

junctions between neurons at which information is passed from one neuron (presynaptic neuron) to another (postsynaptic neuron) junction between neuron and effector (muscle or gland) usually called neuroeffector junction (NEJ) neuromuscular junction (NMJ) - neuron to muscle neuroglandular junction (NGJ) - neuron to gland

Postsynaptic Potentials and Synaptic Integration

transmission from presynaptic to postsynaptic neuron is excitatory or inhibitory depending on type of NT released each presynaptic neuron releases either excitatory NT or inhibitory NT postsynpatic membranes normally dendrite or cell body (soma or perikaryon)

Postsynaptic Potentials and Synaptic Integration

reaction of receptors to NTs is graded, response depends on number of receptors involved (which depends on amount of NT released) excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

Organization of Neurons: Types of Circuits

Simple series circuit Converging circuit Diverging circuit Reverberating (oscillatory) circuit Parallel after-discharge circuit

Simple Series Circuit

one presynaptic neuron goes to one postsynaptic neuron; e.g., simple reflex arc
presynaptic

synapses

postsynaptic

Converging Circuits

several presynaptic axonal terminals go to single postsynaptic neuron (output) input from several pathways produces single result e.g., voluntary vs subconscious breathing; happy baby

Diverging Circuits

one presynaptic neuron --> several postsynaptic neurons e.g., single motor neuron from brain may go to several motor neurons in spinal cord (thence to several muscle fibers) e.g., single sensory neuron to CNS may be part of reflex but also send info to brain

Reverberating (Oscillatory) Circuits

chain of neurons with synapses to neurons earlier in circuit sleep-wake cycle breathing possibly short-term memory some motor activities (arm swinging)

Parallel After-Discharge Circuit

one presynaptic neuron fires to several postsynaptic neurons arranged in parallel that eventually result in common output many different responses occur simultaneously may be involved in problem solving