Supports, lining and ventilation

Support needs
In soft ground tunnelling immediate support must be provided by a stiff lining. In such a case, the ground usually participates actively by providing resistance to outward deformation of the lining. In medium-hard rock or in more cohesive soils, the ground may be strong enough to allow a certain open section at the tunnel face. Here, certain amount of stress release may permanently be valid before the supporting elements and the lining begin acting effectively. In this situation only a fraction of the primary ground pressure is acting on the lining. Hard rock tunneling: In hard rock the ground alone may preserve the stability of the opening so that only a thin lining, if any, will be necessary for surface protection.

Rock Quality Designation

RQD Support need 0-25 % Very poor ground in which squeezing and ravelling may occur, therefore good support is required.

25-50 %

Poor ground requiring extensive support.

50-75 %

Fairly good ground but the discontinuity pattern may allow blocks and slabs to slide into the excavation.

75-90%

Good ground requiring occasional support.

90-100%

Very good ground, only occasional support

Competence Factor The term competence factor (Fc) is defined as the ratio of the compressive strength of the ground under uniaxial load to the net pressure of the overburden (Muir-Wood, 1972). He recognized the three following conditions:
Fc Support need

Fc<2

The ground is overstressed immediately on exposure around the periphery of an excavation and as a consequence the tunnel system must provide for continuous support of the ground.

10>Fc>2

The stability of the ground around the tunnel is a function of time and of brittleness of the ground. Plastic, elastic or brittle behaviour may occur.

Fc>10

Such ground, if intact and unaffected by tunnelling construction, will stand unsupported.

Geomechanics Classification (RMR System) The Geomechanics Classification or the rock mass rating (RMR) system was developed by Bieniawski (1979). It utilizes the following six parameters all of which are measurable in the field and can also be obtained from borehole data. a) Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock material b) Rock quality designation (RQD) c) Spacing of discontinuities d) Condition of discontinuities e) Groundwater conditions f) Orientation of discontinuities

NORM B 2203 Due to the overwhelming success of the New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM) there has been a trend towards evaluation of the rock mass quality according to the criterions of Austrian Standard NORM B 2203. The ground is grouped into several classes each class being given a specific type and amount of temporary support, in addition to specific excavation steps.
Rock Class Description
A1 Stable

Austrian Standard NORM B 2203

1 Stable

A2 Slightly overbreaking

2 Afterbreaking

B1 Friable

3 Slightly friable

B2 Heavily friable

4 Friable or slightly pressure exerting

C1 Pressure exerting

5 Heavily friable or pressure exerting

C2 Heavily pressure exerting

6 Heavily pressure exerting

L1 Loose ground, highly cohesive

L2 Loose ground, low cohesive

Example:
Class A1 Suitable method of driving and support No support required (may be local supports- random); fullface or top heading and bench in large excavation profiles; drill and blast Shotcrete and random rockbolts; top heading (2.5-3.5m) and bench (4.00m); drill and blast

A2

B1

Shotcrete and systematic bolting; top heading (2.00-3.00m) and bench (4.00m); drill and blast.

B2

Shotcrete, systematic bolting, forepoling; top heading (1.5-2.5m), bench (3.5m); smooth blasting, roadheaders if rock masses are sensitive to vibrations.

C1

Shotcrete, systematic bolting, forepoling, steel ribs; top heading (1.0-1.5m), bench (2.0m), invert arch (100150m); smooth blasting or rockheader or tunnel excavator.

C2

Shotcrete, systematic bolting, forepoling, steel ribs; top heading (1.2m), side galleries may be required, bench (2.0m) invert arch (25-50m); smooth blasting or rockheader, or tunnel excavator

L1

Shotcrete, forepoling or lagging,ribs; top heading (1.5m), bench (3.0m) invert arch (100-150m); tunnel excavator. Shotcrete, forepoling or lagging, ribs; top heading (1.5m), bench (2.0m), invert arch (24-50m); tunnel excavator.

L2

The L2 ground condition was encountered in some phases of the Bolu tunnel construction, requiring very substantial supports in the form of a combination of shotcrete, rock bolts and I-beams. The Austrian Tunnelling Standard NORM B 2203 is compiled on the qualitative base, i.e. it does not evaluate any parameters of rock environment by system of points. As a result, the rock mass quality evaluation depends on experience of a geologist and his subjective observation of rock mass behaviour. Though this evaluation is relatively simple and prompt, NORM B 2203 has been seen used as a business standard used to arrange working relations between investment organization and supplier of underground structures. The basis of rock mass quality evaluation according to NORM B 2203 is also the assessment of the financial demand of the technical works. Categorization of rock mass part into certain class of NORM B 2203 pledges the contractor to the relevant technological procedures agreed in the contract (e.g. the method of driving and transport of muck, as well as method of temporary and permanent lining). Each deviation from the agreed procedures complicates relations between investment and realizing (design/construct) organisations. Principally the above rock classification systems relate to defects or potential defects of the rock mass and not to the inherent properties of the rock material. For weak rocks, the contribution from a rock classification system is more limited since behaviour of the rock will depend as much, or more, on the rock material than upon the discontinuities. Attempts to base support requirements for weak ground on rock classification figures have been notably unsuccessful. Generally, the evaluation of support needs for weak rock is more difficult that for strong rock.

Types of support
Steel arches Steel ribs are used for reinforcement of weaker tunnel sections, and give rigid to semi-rigid support. The ribs are made from I-beam or Hbeam structural steel bent to conform to the requirements of a particular tunnel cross-section. The design of steel arches based on the notion of the unstable rock wedge in the crown, or possible asymmetrically, to be supported by the arch. The arch is buttressed against the rock around the remainder of the periphery of the tunnel, to limit bending stresses. The design of the foot-blocks is vital to the success of the system of support, in relation to bearing capacity of the ground, which may be weakened by the disturbance caused by the tunnel excavation. The weakness of steel arch support concerns the load at which failure may occur by lateral buckling and torsion. Timber may be used for packing between the beams and the rock. However, providing continuous bedding against the rock may considerably increase the load-bearing capacity of the arches. A means for achieving this objective is the inserting between the rock and arch a bolster made of porous fabric filled with a weak sand/cement grout.

Rock bolts Steel bolts are frequently set in holes drilled into the rock to assist in supporting the entire roof or individual rock slabs that tend to fall into a tunnel. Rock bolts maintain the stability of an opening by suspending the dead weight of a slab from the rock above by providing a normal stress on the rock surface to clamp discontinuities together and develop beam action by preventing key blocks becoming loosened so that the strength and integrity of the rock mass is maintained. If the characteristics of the rock are such that the bolts will suffice in supporting the roof or parts thereof, the use of bolts is both safe and economical. The effective use of bolts requires some understanding of the natural forces that exist underground. In an underground excavation all downward-acting forces are transmitted to the walls of the excavation. Most of the rock above the excavation is supported by natural arch action that bears on the walls. The arch suspends the remaining rock below the arch. If this suspended rock lacks sufficient strength, it sags and tension cracks develop. As the cracks work up into the roof, weakening the suspended strata, rock begins to fall all at once or over an extended period of time. If the rock is strong enough and free of large slips and cracks, the rock that is subject to falling usually should not exceed one-third of the width of the roof. It is this rock that bolts can support.

Rock Bolting

Shotcrete Pneumatically applied mortar and concrete are increasingly being used for the support of underground excavations. The effectiveness of a shotcrete is determined by its compressive strength, bond strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity. A layer of shotcrete 150mm thick around a tunnel 10m in diameter can carry a load of 500 kN/m corresponding to a burden exeeding 20m of rock. A combination of rock bolts and shotcrete has proved an excellent temporary support for all qualities of rock. Shotcrete is best known in tunnelling as an integral component of the NATM method. Quick-setting concrete is sprayed onto the bare rock surface immediately after excavation, and rapidly hardens to form a preliminary support until the final lining of conventional poured concrete can be installed. Shotcrete has advantages and disadvantages. Traditionally, shotcrete's quick-setting properties have been achieved by the injection of high-alkaline additives at the spraying nozzle. However, this method has always had its drawbacks. The resulting concrete is highly porous, and lacks strength. Caustic dust from the additives can cause skin and lung problems, and represents a health hazard to construction workers. The German water authorities were concerned about the environmental problems associated with conventional shotcrete. Due to its porous nature, large quantities of groundwater seep through causing caustic alkalines to be leached out of the concrete. These are washed into aquifers and rivers, where they constitute a serious polluant. Leaching causes problems for tunnel owners as well, because hardened leachate rapidly blocks the tunnel's drainage systems.

Wire mesh Wire mesh is used to support small pieces of loose rock or as reinforcement for shotcrete. Two types of wire mesh are commonly used in underground excavations: chainlink mesh and weldmesh. The chainlink mesh is commonly used for fencing and it consists of a woven fabric of wire. The wire can be galvanized for corrosion protection and it tends to be flexible and strong. Weldmesh is commonly used for reinforcing shotcrete and it consists of a square grid of steel wires, welded at their intersection points.

Tunnel Lining Permanent lining is required in most tunnels, always in soft ground and frequently in rock. The purpose of a lining is partly structural, to contain and support the ground and control inflow of water, as well as to provide an internal finishing suitable for the equipment of the tunnel. The principal materials and construction methods for permanent lining of bored tunnels are: 1) in-situ concrete, 2) sprayed concrete (shotcrete), 3) segments in prefab concrete or cast-iron. The process of placing concrete in situ was incompatible with timber supports. In consequence, the first uses of concrete were for tunnels in good rock and it was only with the introduction of steel supports that concrete became the norm for a tunnel lining material. In-situ forms used for lining tunnels are, with few exceptions, of the travelling type, constructed of steel. The travelling type form is constructed of steel members which are lines with steel plate or wood to give a surface which conforms with the shape of the inside surface.

Precast Concrete Segments In recent years a number of tunnels driven through earth by using shields or TBMs have been lined with prefabricated concrete segments, which, in general, were placed immediately behind the excavating operation, either with e.g. the tailpiece of an excavating machine, or in the case of TBMs a special segment erector. The number of segments used to produce a ring has varied from two to eight or more, and the width of the rings has been in the range of 60 150 cm. This method of driving a tunnel has in general proved very satisfactory and economical. Precast concrete segments used to line large diameter running tunnels on the Lisbon Metro in Portugal were designed to withstand highly aggressive ground conditions. The ground water beneath the historic centre and below the old dockyards along the Tagus River is contaminated with chlorides, nitrates and sulphates, which are all aggressive to elements to steel reinforced concrete. Corrosion attacks to the concrete were a major design consideration. To comply with a 120-year design lifespan, the concrete of the precast segmental linings has a permeability of no more than 10mm and B40 quality minimum strength requirement of 40 Mpa after 28 days. The segments also require an early strength of 10-12 Mpa to allow a strike of the formwork within seven days. Meeting these specifications began with a low W/C ratio, which was not easily achieved with the SRMR (sulphate resistant cement) available in Portugal.

Ventilation of tunnels

Mechanical ventilation systems provide the temperature, humidity and air velocity conditions necessary to give tunnel users a reasonable degree of comfort during normal operation. When a fire occurs in a tunnel, the system must also provide a safe evacuation route for tunnel users and access for fire fighting services. The choice and design of a ventilation system depends on these main factors: tunnel length, number of tubes, urban or rural fresh air requirement under normal and special traffic situations admissible air pollution around tunnel portals fire safety considerations. Key pollutants include carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, nitrogen dioxide, hydrocarbons PM10 and lead. The increase in the number of long tunnels has created demand for better understanding of ventilation techniques and aerodynamics behaviour of vehicles. In addition to demand for design and operational efficiency, this is driven by the need to comply with new safety and environmental legislation.

Ventilation during construction During construction it is necessary to ventilate a tunnel for various reasons: To furnish fresh air for the workers To remove the dust caused by drilling, blasting, mucking, diesel engines, and other operations To remove obnoxious gases and fumes produced by explosives Mechanical ventilation is usually supplied by electric fans, as for example axial flow pressure fans. If air is blown into a tunnel, it may be forced through a lightweight pipe or fabric duct. If air is exhausted, it is necessary to use a rigid duct that will not collapse. The exhaust method has the advantage of more quickly removing objectionable air from spaces occupied by the workers.