GROUP ONE

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9.
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Ikele, Onas Ojienakhe Opoku Prince kwaku Shahin Abdul Razak Shajahan @00318909 Adedokun Oluwasegun Isaac Anene Uche Quincy Chimezie Arynov Ilyas Okpaghoro Anthonette Eric Dankwa Fasakin Akinwole William west Isoibim Benjamin Muyiwa Adegboyega Chidimma Chilaka Abdul Taufeeq Muftahu Nuhu Yahya Samuel J. Amakiri

@00316519 @00314554

@00315601 @00314435 @00317240 @00302388 @00279531 @00312389 @00324548 @00315766 @00325389 @00320283 @00312832 @00279520

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS TEMPERATURE? Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold. TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SCALES Fahrenheit Scale Centigrade / Celsius Scale Kelvin/ Absolute Temperature Scale

Comparison of Temperature Scales Fahrenheit Water boils Body temperature Water freezes Absolute zero 212 98.6 32 -460 Celsius 100 37 0 -273 Kelvin 373 310 273 0

THERMOMETERS COMPARE FAHRENHEIT, CELSIUS AND KELVIN SCALES

EXPANSION THERMOMETERS

Expansion of solids Bi-metal strips Expansion of liquids Liquid-in-metal thermometers Expansion of Gases Gas thermometer Change-of-state thermometer Vapour pressure thermometer Pyrometer cones, bars and rings

BIMETALLIC STRIP
Description A bimetallic strip isinvar made up of 2 dissimilar metals that are fused together, having different coefficient of expansion.

brass

Range - 30C to 550C Accuracy 1% Full scale division

Advantages Less expensive Easy to operate on site readings Used in small domestic appliance

flame Disadvantage -it works in small temperature range -it has low accuracy -Readings cannot be gotten remotely

Applications it can be used to operate a thermostat as temperature control device it can be used to operate a steam trap used to drive pointer on an instrument

LIQUID IN METAL THERMOMETER

Description This type of thermometer consists of a large bulb containing volume of the specific liquid, bourdon tube, pointer and capillary tube joining the bulb and the bourdon tube. When the temperature of the bulb increases, the liquid inside expands. The expansion causes the volume to increase which pushes the bourdon tube up . Rang e 380C - 6000C. Advantage
Direct reading No external power required
Easy to handle

Disadvantage
High cost due to corrosion effect of liquid metal contact. Cannot be read remotely

Accuracy
1% F.S.D .

Application
Response of temperature for gases is more rapid then for liquid. Higher coefficient of expansion than liquids and solids.

Used in electrical ovens to operate On & Off switch, boilers and air condition

CHANGE OF STATE THERMOMETERS

Description Vapour Pressure and melting points can be used to determine temperatures of a range of liquids and minerals. These methods can be carried out using Vapour pressure thermometers; Pyrometric cones, bars and rings. The Vapour Pressure Thermometer uses the variable saturated vapour pressure of a volatile liquid as a measure of the temperature. Advantages Disadvantages Does not need ambient At higher temperature compensation temperature the Inexpensive compared to scale must have a liquid-in-metal thermometer. wider range than The liquid bulb is small at lower compared to other expansion temperature thermometers therefore less accurate

Range 185C to 315C Application Used in steam traps

PICTURE OF A VAPOUR PRESSURE THERMOMETER

Pyrometric Cones, Bars and Rings: Mixtures of minerals are made up in the form of bars and cones, and placed in a Kiln. Those of lower melting points will melt, one will bend over to indicate the temperature of the kiln, the next cone of higher melting point is not affected.

Range 200C to 600C

Accuracy 10C
Application Used in ceramic industries to determine Kiln temperatures.

ELECTRICAL METHODS OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Resistance thermometers Thermistors Thermoelectric thermometers

Measurement of electrical variable

Total radiation pyrometers Partial radiation pyrometers Chopped radiation pyrometers Ratio (two-colour) pyrometers Reflecting hemisphere pyrometers Optical pyrometers

RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
DESCRIPTION Consist of a length of fine coiled wire (e.g.. Platinum, nickel, copper)wrapped around a ceramic core. Temperature is sensed in the spiral wire and transmitted to a meter connected to the leads. ADVANTAGES Linear over wide operating range Wide temperature operating range

RANGE
Up to 600C

DISADVANTAGES
Affected by shock and vibration.
They need a bridge circuit, power supply. Platinum contamination at temperature over 660C

ACCURACY
Lab Instrument: 0.01C at 500C Better than 0.5% for

Good stability at high temperature

APPLICATIONS
Industrial Uses Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing. Food Processing. Stoves and grills. Textile production. Plastics processing. Petrochemical processing. Micro electronics.
Laboratory Uses Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement Exhaust gas temperature measurement

THERMISTORS

DESCRIPTION Thermistors consist of an element made from semiconductor material like metal oxides or oxide mixtures such as cobalt, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, nickel, tin, titanium, uranium, zinc

RANGE -100C to 30 C ACCURACY 0.001C

ADVANTAGES Rapid response Higher sensitivity. Wider application.

DISADVANTAGES Not suitable for vibrating mediums

Requires complex circuitry designs and its fragile Thermistors small thermal mass makes them vulnerable to selfheating errors

APPLICATION Used in digital thermostats

PTC thermistors are used as: current limiting devices for circuit protection. NTC thermistors are used as: resistance thermometer in low temperature measurement of 10k order. To monitor the temperature in incubators

THERMOELECTRIC THERMOMETER
DESCRIPTION
A device consisting of two junctions of two dissimilar metals, in an electric circuit; when the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is generated by the device; used for measuring temperature. There are two types of thermoelectric thermometer and they include the Base-metal thermocouple (commonly made of alloys of Nickel-chromealuminium, Iron-constantan and/or copper-constantan) and the Raremetal thermocouple (commonly made of platinum and platinumrhodium)

APPLICATION Used for temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes. DISADVANTAGES Inaccurate over a wide range. Different thermocouples are required for different ranges. Metals could be affected by oxidization, and other degradation. Cold junction compensations to be considered. Errors could arise from prolonged use due to metal vapours and other furnace gases thus for each thermocouple, galvanometer requires fresh calibration.

ADVANTAGES Nickel-ChromeRANGE Aluminium alloy Up to 800C for Iron eliminates the Constantan. problem of rust 1000 - 2000C for Nickel Rapidly varying Chrome Aluminium. temperature can be measured. Cheap and easy to ACCURACY construct. 0.2% -0.75% of full scale It can measure temperature at a point.

RADIATION PYROMETERS
Radiation is a process in which energetic particles or waves travels through a medium or space. Kirchhoff law of thermal radiation states that Radiation emitted by anybody at a certain temperature is equal to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature multiplied by the absorptance. The black body temperature is described by Plancks law.

C1 = 3.74 * 10-19 KWm2 C2 = 1.439 * 10-2mK Eb = Amount of energy per unit area of a blackbody. T = Temperature = Wavelength Radiation pyrometers are used in places where physical contact temperature sensors like Thermocouple, RTD, and Thermistors would fail because of the high temperature of the source.

TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER

DESCRIPTION The total radiation pyrometer receives all the radiation from a particular hot body (both the visible and invisible radiations). It consists of radiation receiving element and a measuring device The heat energy emitted from the hot body is passed on to the optical lens, which collects it and is focused on to the detector with the help of the mirror and eye piece arrangement. The detector may either be a thermistor or photomultiplier tubes

RANGE
600- 12000C. ACCURACY Non-linear

ADVANTAGES To measure very high temperature. High output signal and moderate cost. No need to have contact with measuring system. Fast response.

DISADVANTAGE Non-linear scale. Error will occur. Emissivity of target material affects the measurements.

APPLICATION

Used to measure temperature of moving target Used to measure temperature of a target where physical contact is impossible e.g. Molten metal. Used to measure temperature in corrosive environment. Used to measure invisible rays from radiations

PARTIAL-RADIATION PYROMETER
DESCRIPTION
It is a disappearing filament optical pyrometer, suitable for measuring high temperature of incandescent objects, in annealing and hardening furnaces, in firing kilns, for measuring the temperature of molten and flowing metal or glass as well as incandescent blocks during forging, pressing or rolling. The temperature measurement ADVANTAGE RANGE makes use of comparison between the Has light weight, houses all 0 800 -2000 C. brightness of an electrically heated and components of the complete calibrated incandescent filament measuring equipment. ACCURACY DISADVANTAGE 1% of measuring They are easy to operate. Sensitive only to restricted range. wavelength. High measuring accuracy. Reflected radiation can cause serious errors in radiation pyrometer at temperature below 8000C.

APPLICATION For measuring high temperature of incandescent objects, in annealing and hardening furnaces, in firing kilns e.g Ceramics and Cement industries

For measuring the temperature of molten and flowing metal e.g. Steel industries or molten glass as well as incandescent blocks during forging, pressing or rolling

http://www.processsensorsir.com

CHOPPED RADIATION PYROMETER

Used to characterize the mechanical or optical modulation of radiation. (Primarily, thermal infrared radiation, intercepted by the infra-red detector). This is accomplished by an optical chopper, basically mechanical blades driven by a suitable electromagnetic device-which periodically interrupts the incident radiation from the measured target to the detector. During each interruption, the detector is exposed to a reference radiation, APPLICATIONS To operate pyroelectric detectors. generally an internal blackbody reference source having a defined temperature

ACCURACY 1% F.S.D

RANGE 30-550 0C

ADVANTAGES Virtually no thermal drift. Unequalled noise filtering. High temperature resolution. Long term stability. Excellent dynamic compensation of thermal shock. To reduce signal noise.

DISADVANTAGES High construction cost.

Has its weak link in the optical chopper, as it tends to make pyrometers unreliable.

RATIO (TWO- COLOUR) PYROMETER

DESCRIPTION A non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal radiation , a process known as pyrometry. Ratio pyrometer is a non contact measurement device which can be used to determine the temperature of an object's surface. Uses two detectors to add up all the intensity in two wavebands and then relate the quotient of the two intensities to temperature ADVANTAGES They can be used to measure moving targets They can also be used for measuring temperatures of objects in vacuum which are inaccessible due geometry limitation or safety hazards Wide useful temperature range Ratio pyrometer has fast response. From subzero temperatures to extreme high (virtually unlimited values)

DISADVANTAGES The cost is relatively ACCURACY Highly Accurate high, especially when compared to contact devices.

APPLICATIONS Moving objects or any surface that cannot be reached or touched. Monitoring such operation as glass, metal, chemical, cement etc. Subzero measurements ( in the foods, electronics, paper, pharmaceutical, plastics, textile industries, etc.) Checking large lines, vessels, steam traps, and so on, for faulty operation.

REFLECTING HEMISPHERE PYROMETER

Description The temperature is determined Advantages It is better able to withstand repeated operation at high temperature. Disadvantages less sensitive to emissivity errors because of the black body.

without knowing the emissivity of

the surface, since it is measured under essentially blackbody conditions. The radiation detector is mounted at the top of the gold plated reflecting cup which is placed on the hot surface.

Application Used for spot temperature measurement up to 1300 C on all surfaces except unoxidised metals. It is also used as a laser processing apparatus.

OPTICAL PYROMETERS

DESCRIPTION Used for temperature measurement of an object. The device actually tracks and measures the amount of heat that is radiated from an object.

In an optical pyrometer, a brightness comparison is made to measure the temperature. As a measure of the reference temperature, a colour change with the growth in temperature is taken. The device compares the brightness produced by the radiation of the temperature source with that of a reference temperature.

ADVANTAGES Provides a very high accuracy with +/-5 degree Celsius No need for direct body contact between instrument and object. Can be used in a wide variety of applications e.g. moving objects. Distance is not a problem as device can be used for remote sensing. Ease of use lightweight, portable, flexible.

DISADVANTAGES

Device can only be used in applications with a minimum temperature of 700 degree Celsius. Device not useful for obtaining continuous values of temperatures at small intervals. Expensive. Not useful for measuring temperature of clear gas.

APPLICATIONS

Used to measure temperatures of liquid metals or highly heated materials. Can be used to measure furnace temperatures

Measurement of temperature of gases

The suction of pyrometer The venturi-pneumatic pyrometer The Schmidt radiation method

SUCTION PYROMETER

DESCRIPTION The suction pyrometer measures the true temperature of a gas. The sensor, more commonly an type S thermocouple, is shielded by 3 concentric ceramic tubes to minimize the radiactive exchange with the surrounding surfaces or flames. The gas is aspirated through the ceramic shields at very high velocity (>100m/s).

Range S Type (0 1450)C B- Type (0-1700) C

Advantages Simplicity of operation.

Accuracy Pyrometer has an accuracy of 1.0% with high response time of 7-10 seconds.

Easy maintainabilit y
Durability/ ruggedness

Disadvantage Overheating can occur over an extended period of time.

Applications Metal molten furnace.

It is used in water-tube boilers.

It is used in steel industries. Hot air balloon.

VENTURI-PNEUMATIC PYROMETER
Description
This is an instrument which measures gas and flame temperatures. The gas temperature is measured by comparing the gas density at the unknown temperatures with its density at known lower temperature. The density measurements are obtained by venturi restriction using pressure drops.

Range 0-2500oC Accuracy

30% at 1300oC

Advantages its rapid rate of response its usage in regenerative furnace its extensive usage time of over 15 hours among others.

Disadvantages Being expensive, overheating and sensitivity to variation in surface temperature.

Applications To measure Extreme high temperature Industrial furnace Open-hearth furnace

SCHMIDT RADIATION METHOD

DESCRIPTION This method overcomes the difficulties caused by the partial transparent nature of gas. A twinbeam pyrometer is used, one beam on a hole in the furnace and the other on a hot region of the lining which contains a thermocouple. A mean value of temperature is obtained at optical path
RANGE Small temperature gradients. ACCURACY The accuracy depends on the emissivity of the gas. ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES They can be used at They are expensive. unbearable high temperatures where probes can not be They are cumbersome used. and liable to error due to the emissivity of gas Highly sensitive local convection. Not affected by partial transparent nature of gas.

APPLICATION

Measurement of heat flux

Plug-type heat-flux meter Radial-disc heat-flux meter Ellipsoidal radiometer

PLUG-TYPE HEAT-FLUX METER.

DESCRIPTION This instrument measures the total heat flux incident upon its plug face conducting the heat through the plug to the water cooling at the rear.

RANGE Heat from a solid angle of 2

ADVANTAGES Uses two thermocouples for measuring heat flux

DISADVANTAGE In practice it is usually difficult to define L and m precisely. Guard ring systems are not perfect which also affects the accuracy.

RADIAL DISC HEAT FLUX METER

DESCRIPTION This instrument measures the total heat flux by absorbing on the disc and conducting it away radically to the instrument

PRECAUTION Each instrument requires individual calibration

ADVANTAGES Simple in construction Can be used in positions inaccessible to the plug type

DISADVANTAGE Usually less accurate and less robust

APPLICATION
To measure the direct heat flux upon a furnace

ELLIPSOIDAL RADIOMETER
DESCRIPTION Used to measure the total radioactive flux(radiation) incoming from the medium facing the tip of the radiometer

APPLICATION It is used in the measurement of temperature of furnaces

MAXIMUM OPERATING TEMPERATURE Furnace 2973K

ADVANTAGE Traversing measurements through the flame are also possible and provide additional information on the flame radioactive properties

DISADVANTAGE The response time is of the order of 1min

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