Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
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DR.Mukta Girdhar
What is a Map
Map is usually a two dimensional representation (eg a flat piece of paper) of a three dimensional object (eg the Earth) occasionally it may be a three dimensional object (eg a globe) Maps are drawn to a scale Maps generally have a reference system
Latitude
The first convention to be developed was latitude. This is based on long term astronomical observations about how the sun is perceived to move across the surface of the Earth. These observations also developed the conventions that the sun: rises in the east and sets in the west
line around the centre of the Earth would be called the Equator. This would be numbered as zero degrees (0) of latitude. From the Equator a series of parallel lines were recognised with the most northern and southern points being called the North Pole and South Pole. These would be numbered as 90 degrees North and South respectively (90N and 90S).
Longitude
Series of radiating lines which run vertically around the Earth. They connected at both ends ie at the North Pole and the South Pole. As a result of this, a series of slices much like slices of an orange are created. These are pointed at their ends and broadest in the middle. It was agreed that a primary line of longitude should be identified and that this should be zero degrees (0) of longitude.
Datum
How to transfer co-ordinate system on to the surface of the earth.
Measurement system
Measurement system which is used calculate the coordinates of points on the surface of the Earth.
Projection
which allows the coordinates which have been calculated using a measuring system, to be displayed on a flat piece of paper.
Distortions
Thedirectionbetween a feature and surrounding features Thedistancebetween a feature and surrounding features Theshapeof any feature Thesizeof any feature
Block of 1x1
Distortion
Datum
Adatumis a system which allows the location of latitudes and longitudes (and heights) to be identified onto the surface of the Earth
In order to calculate where latitudes and longitudes occur on the surface of the Earth a number of fundamental geometric concepts and practices need to be applied.
Projection
Aprojectionis a process which uses the latitude and longitude which has already been drawn on the surface of the Earth using a datum, to then be drawn onto a flat piece of paper called a map.
Projection
Basic Type:depends on the characteristic that is preserved
Basic Technique: depends on the method used to project features onto a flat surface
Conformal correctly shows theshapeof features (A map can not be both equalarea or conformal it can only be one; or the other; or neither.)
conical the imaginary piece of paper is rolled into a cone this is usually used in mid-latitude areas (approximately 20 60 North and South)
cylindrical the imaginary piece of paper is rolled into a cylinder this is usually used over Equatorial areas or for World Maps
Azimuthal
the imaginary piece of paper is flat this is usually used over Polar areas These projections: have distortions increasing away from the central point have very small distortions near the centre point (the touch point of the paper) compass direction is only correct from the centre point to another feature not between other features are not usually used near theEquator, because other projections better represent the features in this area.
Azimuthal
Conical Projections
These projections: are fan shaped when used to map large areas have distortions increasing away from the central circular line (the touch point of the paper) have very small distortions along the central circular line (the touch point of the paper) shapes are shown correctly, but size is distorted usually have lines of longitude fanning out from each other and have lines of latitude as equally spaced open concentric circles
2-D Dimension
These projections usually: are rectangular or oval shaped but this projection technique is very variable in its shape have lines of longitude and latitude at right-angles to each other have distortions increasing towards away from the central circular line (the touch point of the paper) have very small distortions along the central circular line (the touch point of the paper) show shapes correctly, but size is distorted.
A particular subset of the transverse Mercator is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) which was adopted originally by the US Army for large-scale military maps. In the UTM system, the globe is divided into 60 zones between 84 S and 84 N, most of which are 6 wide. Each UTM zone has its own central meridian and spans 3 west and 3 east from the center of the zone. Note that the position of the cylinder developable surface is positioned at a different place around the globe for each zone. X- and Ycoordinates are in meters by convention.
For zones in the northern hemisphere, the Xorigin is a place 500,000 m west of the central meridian, and the Y-origin is the Equator. The false easting is used to eliminate negative coordinates. For zones in the southern hemisphere, the X origin is also 500,000 m west of the central meridian, but the Y-origin is the South Pole.
A cartographer is a person who creates Maps A map on a spherical surface is called a globe
Magnetic Compass
Map Scale
2cm to 1K.M 1:10,000 Graphical or linear scale
Distance on the map =2cm =2cm
1km
100 000
Symbology
Map Features
Point Line Polygon shape of area Text
Contours
Contours
Where Are we
General Reference(sometimes called planimetric maps) Topographic Maps Thematic Navigation Charts Cadastral Maps and Plans Meteorological Map
Tourist Map
It is a general reference map which has been enhanced for a specific reason that of highlighting places of interest that people might like to visit.
Street Map
The Street Map is well known to all maps. Street maps contain all the elements of a general reference map in that they are a summary of the landscape and that their primary purpose is to aid in the discovery of a location.
Thematic Maps
These are maps which depict information on a particular topic.Weather, population density and geology maps are examples of thematic maps.
Thematic Map
This map of limestone caves in Tasmania
Topographic Maps
Like the General Reference Map, Topographic Maps are a summary of the landscape and show important physical (natural and man-made) features in an area. The primary difference is that they show elevation in detail. Characteristics of topographic maps include: they show elevation using countour line It shows (roads, cities, buildings etc), but may include some thematic information such as vegetation or the boundaries of national parks they are typically produced by government agencies these are often specialist mapping agencies and may have either a civilian or defence purpose they have very good location reference systems includinglattitude and logitude, but may also havegrid lines often have additional information such as an arrow pointing toNorth
Topographic map
Cadastral Plans
Navigation Map
This includes information about the seabed depth below the surface of the water. The numbers indicate known depth for an individual spot and the dotted line is an indication of lines of equal depth - generally called bathymetric contours (or isobars) to distinguish them from land contours
Series Maps
These maps typically have a constant scale (eg 1:100,000) and join together in a regular fashion such that a large area is continuously mapped
CONTENTS
Introduction to GIS Components of GIS GIS datasets, Spatial and Non Spatial Raster and Vector GIS functions
WHAT IS GIS?
GIS is a system of hardware, software, data and personnel to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze and display all forms of geographically referenced information.
A geographic information system is a technology assisted by several systems for the storage, acquisition, Cartographic Displayanalysis System and Map digitizing system Database management system Image processing system Statistical analysis system Global positioning system
COMPONENTS OF GIS
In order to meet the above requirements, the following functions are necessary for GIS data acquisition and pre-processing data base management and retrieval spatial measurement and analysis graphic output and visualization
FUCTIONS OF GIS
DATA CAPTURE: inputting geographic and tabular (attribute) data STORAGE: two basic data models for geographic data storage. Vector and raster. QUERYING :finding specific features based on the location or attribute value ANALYSIS: interaction of spatial relationship between multiple datasets DISPLAY: visualizing the geographic features using a variety of symbology OUTPUT: display results in a variety of formats, such as maps, reports and graphs.
Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information A database management system (DBMS) Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools
SOFTWARES
There are many GIS software companies in the market Two types mainly Raster (Image Processing) and Vector but almost all modern GIS software are capable to handle both. Most commonly used GIS /RS Softwares ArcGIS (ESRI), MapInfo, Geomedia, Gram++, IRIDISI, ERDAS IMAGINE, ER Mapper, ENVI, ILWIS, GRASS , Q-GISetc.
DATA SETS
SPATIAL
Spatial data is represented in the form of x and y coordinates.
NON SPATIAL
Non Spatial data can be any other relevant data related to the spatial feature. Example is Demographic, socioeconomic data etc.
DATA CAPTURE
manual digitizing and scanning of analogue maps image data input (Satellite imageries/ aerial photo) Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Transfer of data from existing digital sources.
NON SPATIAL DATA: Attribute data (manual data entry) Linking it to existing databases in Access, Oracle or SQL Server
PEOPLE
GIS technology is of limited value without people who manage the system for applying it to real world problems. Designers or programmers - To develop the system as per requirements Operators To enter and update the GIS database and maps Specialized professionals Meteorologist, urban planners, geologists, emergency managers, agronomists etc.
PROCEDURES
Successful GIS operates as per requirements of the users. Standard procedures common to all. Can be customized as per their individual needs and requirements. e.g. HAZUS, RADIUS,HEC RAS, SHAKE etc
THANKS