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Copyright SEL 2008

Power System Protection


Fundamentals
What should we teach students
about power system protection?
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Agenda
Why protection is needed
Principles and elements of the protection
system
Basic protection schemes
Digital relay advantages and enhancements
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Disturbances: Light or Severe
The power system must maintain acceptable
operation 24 hours a day
Voltage and frequency must stay within certain
limits
Small disturbances
The control system can handle these
Example: variation in transformer or generator load
Severe disturbances require a protection
system
They can jeopardize the entire power system
They cannot be overcome by a control system
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Power System Protection
Operation during severe disturbances:
System element protection
System protection
Automatic reclosing
Automatic transfer to alternate power
supplies
Automatic synchronization
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Electric Power System Exposure to
External Agents
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Damage to Main Equipment
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Protection System
A series of devices whose main purpose
is to protect persons and primary electric
power equipment from the effects of faults
The Sentinels
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Blackouts
Loss of service in a
large area or
population region
Hazard to human life
May result in
enormous economic
losses
Overreaction of the
protection system
Bad design of the
protection system

Characteristics Main Causes
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Short Circuits Produce High
Currents
Fault
Substation
a
b
c
I
I
Wire
Three-Phase Line
Thousands of Amps
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Electrical Equipment Thermal Damage
I
t
I
n
I
md
Damage Curve
Short-Circuit
Current
Damage
Time
Rated Value
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Mechanical Damage During
Short Circuits
Very destructive in busbars, isolators, supports,
transformers, and machines
Damage is instantaneous
i
1

i
2

f
1

f
2

Rigid Conductors
f
1
(t)

= k i
1
(t) i
2
(t)
Mechanical
Forces
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The Fuse
Fuse
Transformer
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Protection System Elements
Protective relays
Circuit breakers
Current and voltage transducers
Communications channels
DC supply system
Control cables
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Three-Phase Diagram of the Protection Team
CTs
VTs
Relay
CB
Control
Protected
Equipment
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DC Tripping Circuit
SI
52
TC
DC Station
Battery
SI
Relay
Contact
Relay
Circuit
Breaker
52a
+

Red
Lamp
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Circuit Breakers
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Current Transformers
Very High Voltage CT
Medium-Voltage CT
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Voltage Transformers
Medium Voltage
High Voltage
Note: Voltage transformers
are also known as potential
transformers
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Protective Relays
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Examples of Relay Panels
Old Electromechanical
Microprocessor-
Based Relay
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How Do Relays Detect Faults?
When a fault takes place, the current, voltage,
frequency, and other electrical variables
behave in a peculiar way. For example:
Current suddenly increases
Voltage suddenly decreases
Relays can measure the currents and the
voltages and detect that there is an
overcurrent, or an undervoltage, or a
combination of both
Many other detection principles determine the
design of protective relays
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Main Protection Requirements
Reliability
Dependability
Security
Selectivity
Speed
System stability
Equipment damage
Power quality
Sensitivity
High-impedance faults
Dispersed generation
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Primary Protection
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Primary Protection Zone Overlapping
Protection
Zone B
Protection
Zone A
To Zone B
Relays
To Zone A
Relays
52
Protection
Zone B
Protection
Zone A
To Zone B
Relays
To Zone A
Relays
52
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Backup Protection
A
C D
E
Breaker 5
Fails
1 2 5 6 11 12
T
3 4 7 8 9 10
B F
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Typical Short-Circuit Type
Distribution
Single-Phase-Ground: 7080%
Phase-Phase-Ground: 1710%
Phase-Phase: 108%
Three-Phase: 32%
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Balanced vs.
Unbalanced Conditions
Balanced System Unbalanced System
c
I
a
I
b
I
a
I
c
I
b
I
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Decomposition of an Unbalanced
System
Positive-Sequence
Balanced Balanced
Negative-Sequence
1 b
I
1 c
I
1 a
I
2 b
I
2 a
I
2 c
I
0 a
I
0 b
I
0 c
I
a
I
c
I
b
I
Zero-Sequence
Single-Phase
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Power Line Protection Principles
Overcurrent (50, 51, 50N, 51N)
Directional Overcurrent (67, 67N)
Distance (21, 21N)
Differential (87)
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Application of Inverse-Type
Relays
t
Relay
Operation
Time
I
Fault
Load
Radial Line
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Distance
Distance
t
I
}
}
}
T A
Inverse-Time Relay Coordination
T A
T A
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Addition of Instantaneous OC
Element
t Relay
Operation
Time
I
Fault
Load
Radial Line
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50/51 Relay Coordination
Distance
Distance
t
I
}
}
}
T A T A
T A
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Directional Overcurrent Protection
Basic Applications
K
L
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Directional Overcurrent Protection
Basic Principle
F2

Relay
F1

Forward Fault (F1) Reverse Fault (F2)
V
I
V
I
I
V
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Overcurrent Relay Problem
1 1
) 8 . 0 (
L S
SETTING
Z Z
E
I
+
~
1 1
) (
) 8 . 0 (
L S
LIMIT FAULT
Z Z
E
I
+
'
=
Relay operates when the following condition
holds:
SETTING a FAULT
I I I > =
As changes, the relays reach will change,
since setting is fixed
1 s
Z
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Distance Relay Principle
Three-Phase
Solid Fault
d
L
Radial
Line
21
Suppose Relay Is Designed to Operate
When:
| || | ) 8 . 0 ( | |
1 a L a
I Z V s
c b a
I I I , ,
c b a
V V V , ,
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The Impedance Relay Characteristic
2
1
2 2
r
Z X R s +
R
X
Plain Impedance Relay
Operation Zone
Z
r1
Radius Z
r1
1 r
Z Z s
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Need for Directionality
1 2 3 4 5 6
F1
F2
R
X RELAY 3
Operation Zone
F1
F2
Nonselective
Relay Operation
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Directionality Improvement
1 2 3 4 5 6
F1
F2
R
X RELAY 3
Operation Zone

F1
F2
The Relay Will
Not Operate for
This Fault
Directional Impedance
Relay Characteristic
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Mho Element Characteristic
(Directional Impedance Relay)
( )
MT M
Z Z s cos
Z
M
Z
R
X
MT

( )
MT M
Z I V s cos Operates when:
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Three-Zone Distance Protection
1 2 3 4 5 6
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Time
Time
Zone 1 Is Instantaneous
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Line Protection With Mho Elements
E
X
R
A
B
C
D
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Circular Distance Relay Characteristics
MHO
OFFSET
MHO (1)
PLAIN
IMPEDANCE
R
X
R
X
R
X
OFFSET
MHO (2)
R
X
LENS
(RESTRICTED MHO 1)
TOMATO
(RESTRICTED MHO 2)
R
X
R
X
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Semi-Plane Type Characteristics
REACTANCE
OHM
DIRECTIONAL
R
X
R
X
R
X
RESTRICTED
DIRECTIONAL
R
X
RESTRICTED
REACTANCE
QUADRILATERAL
R
X
R
X
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Distance Protection
Summary
Current and voltage information
Phase elements: more sensitive than 67
elements
Ground elements: less sensitive than 67N
elements
Application: looped and parallel lines
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Directional Comparison
Pilot Protection Systems
Communications
Channel
Exchange of logic information
on relay status
R L
Relays Relays
T
R
R
T
L
I
R
I
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Permissive Overreaching
Transfer Trip
1 2 3 4 5 6
FWD
FWD
Bus A Bus B
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Basic POTT Logic
Zone 2 Elements
RCVR
Key XMTR
Trip AND
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Directional Comparison
Blocking Scheme
1 2
3 4 5 6
FWD
FWD
RVS
RVS
Bus A Bus B
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Basic DCB Logic
Zone 2
RCVR
Trip
CC
0
Carrier Coordination
Time Delay
Key XMTR Zone 3
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Differential Protection Principle
No Relay Operation if CTs Are Considered Ideal
External
Fault
I
DIF
= 0

CT CT
50
Balanced CT Ratio
Protected
Equipment
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Differential Protection Principle
Internal
Fault
I
DIF
> I
SETTING
CTR CTR
50
Relay Operates
Protected
Equipment
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Problem of Unequal CT Performance
False differential current can occur if a CT
saturates during a through-fault
Use some measure of through-current to
desensitize the relay when high currents are
present
External
Fault
Protected
Equipment
I
DIF
=0

CT CT
50
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Possible Scheme Percentage
Differential Protection Principle
Protected
Equipment

S
CTR
CTR
Compares:
Relay
(87)
OP S R
I I I = +
| | | |
2
S R
RT
I I
k I k
+
=

RP

SP
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Differential Protection Applications
Bus protection
Transformer protection
Generator protection
Line protection
Large motor protection
Reactor protection
Capacitor bank protection
Compound equipment protection
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Differential Protection
Summary
The overcurrent differential scheme is simple
and economical, but it does not respond well to
unequal current transformer performance
The percentage differential scheme responds
better to CT saturation
Percentage differential protection can be
analyzed in the relay and the alpha plane
Differential protection is the best alternative
selectivity/speed with present technology
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Multiple Input Differential Schemes
Examples
Differential Protection Zone
Bus Differential: Several Inputs

RP

SP
OP

T
I
1
I
2
I
3
I
4
Three-Winding Transformer
Differential: Three Inputs
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Advantages of Digital Relays
Multifunctional
Compatibility with
digital integrated
systems
Low maintenance
(self-supervision)
Highly sensitive,
secure, and
selective
Adaptive
Highly reliable
(self-supervision)
Reduced burden
on
CTs and VTs
Programmable
Versatile
Low Cost
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Synchrophasors Provide a
Snapshot of the Power System
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The Future
Improvements in computer-based
protection
Highly reliable and viable communication
systems (satellite, optical fiber, etc.)
Integration of control, command,
protection, and communication
Improvements to human-machine
interface
Much more

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