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Knock outs can be produced by removing the gene or inducing a mutation that disables its expression.
Biotechnology 101, Science 101, ISSN 19313950 by Brian Robert Shmaefsky, First published in 2006 , GREENWOOD PRESS Westport, Connecticut London, pp138
stem cells".
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
cells where the mutant DNA replaces the native gene via
homologous recombination. The recombinant ES cells are then introduced into a fresh blastocyst, where they mix with the cells of the inner cell mass.
Transgenic and Gene-Knockout Rodents as Research tools for Cardiovascular Disorders, by Kapil Kapoor* & Madhu Dikshit, Scand. J. Lab. Anim. Sci. No. 2. 2005. Vol. 32
Analysis of Genes and Genomes, Richard J. Reece, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2004. Chapter 13 Engineering animals p 379 - 398
Analysis of Genes and Genomes, Richard J. Reece, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2004. Chapter 13 Engineering animals p 379 398
ES cells are harvested from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst and cultured in vitro. Here they can be genetically modified before being returned to a fresh blastocyst
As the mutant gene encodes a major deletion or missense mutation, mice homozygous for the targeted allele do not
express the native gene product and can be used to study the
effect of a total lack of a given protein. Breeding of various heterozygous and homozygous knockout animals can be used to combine alterations in the expression of multiple genes and to develop animal models of polygenic
Embryonic Stem Cell Culture Embryonic stem (ES) cells are undifferentiated cells isolated from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst (Evans and Kaufman, 1981).
ES cell colonies growing on a layer of fibroblast feeder cells. Healthy, undifferentiated ES cells.
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
Step 1. Generation of a Targeting Vector When designing and constructing a targeting vector, a number of factors must be considered which will influence the type of mutation to be introduced, the efficiency of targeting and the ease with which successful targeting can be detected.
This homologous sequence is divided between the short arm of homology (11.5 kb) and a long arm of homology (48 kb); this permits easy screening of the ES clones. It is ideal to identify gene targeted colonies by PCR designed to span the short arm of homology. It is known that the efficiency of homologous recombination is
decreased when there are base pair differences between the donor
and recipient DNA. For this reason, it is now common practice for the DNA used to
tk) gene can also be used to enrich for gene targeted colonies.
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
The negative selection marker is cloned outside of the homologous sequence in the targeting vector and will therefore not insert into the genome when homologous recombination occurs. For example, the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase gene
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
Targeting vector
Overview: Generation of Gene Knockout Mice, Bradford Hall1, Advait Limaye1, and Ashok B Kulkarni1,1 Curr Protoc Cell Biol. 2009 September ; CHAPTER: Unit 19.1217. doi:10.1002/0471143030.cb191 2s44.
Two homology arms flank a positive drug selection marker (neor). A negative selection marker (HSV-tk) is placed adjacent to one of the targeting arms. A unique restriction enzyme site is located between the vector backbone and the homology arm. When linearized for gene targeting, the vector backbone will then protect the HSV-tk from nucleases.
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
The ES cells are cultured in media containing the drugs used for
selection for 710 days; this will enrich the population with cells that have undergone homologous recombination; however, it must be noted that this process is not 100% efficient. Gene targeting by Homologous Recombination
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
Targeting Vector
Homologous recombination results in the transfer of only the neomycin resistance gene to the host cell.
Analysis of Genes and Genomes, Richard J. Reece, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2004. Chapter 13 Engineering animals p 379 - 398
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
The blastocyst is held on the holding pipette by gentle suction (1).The injection needle containing ES cells is advanced into the blastocyst cavity (blastocoel) (2).where the ES cells are released (3) and the injection needle is removed (4).
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
colour.
It is therefore possible to identify chimeric mice by their coat colour if ES cells from the 129 mouse strain (agouti) have contributed to the development of a C57Bl/6 embryo (non-agouti).
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
Embryos in which the ES cells had made no contribution would appear as wild-type C57Bl/6 (black), whereas those pups in which the 129 ES cells had made a contribution would contain a certain level of agouti coat colouring. Chimeric mice therefore contain some cells carrying the
targeted mutation on one allele and other cells which are wild
type. To generate a gene knockout mouse, it is essential that some of the germ cells carry the targeted mutation.
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
Generation of gene knockout mice by gene targeting in ES cells. The targeting vector is electroporated into the ES cells ES cells that have undergone homologous recombination are injected into blastocyst stage embryos and these embryos are then transplanted to pseudo-pregnant foster mothers. Chimeric offspring can be identified by their coat colour; these pups will carry the targeted mutation carried by the injected ES cells. Chimeric offspring can then be mated to wild type mice to determine whether they transmit the targeted mutation through the germline to give pups heterozygous for the mutation. The heterozygous offspring can then be intercrossed to mice homozygous for the mutation.
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
Advantages
The integration site and therefore the gene modification are highly specific. A variety of mutations can be achieved including null mutations (gene knockout), deletion/rearrangement of large regions of chromosomes, site-specific mutations.
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
Disadvantages
Microinjection requires specialist, expensive equipment and highly trained personnel. Process is very time consuming, taking 1.52 years to generate a targeting vector, target ES cells, identify homologous recombination events, microinject ES cells and test chimeric
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
Process is expensive as it is labour intensive, requires expensive equipment and the mouse husbandry costs will be high. Embryonic lethality if the target gene is essential for
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 5th Edition Edited by John M Walker and Ralph Raply. ISBN: 978-0-85404-125-1,2009, Royal Society of Chemistry 2009, CHAPTER 14 Transgenesis ELIZABETH J. CARTWRIGHT AND XIN WANG, p 390-414
Vertebrate models
Rat The rat, being considerably larger than the mouse, has for many years been the mammal of choice for physiological,
For example a hearing disorder due to mutation in Myosin XVA gene causes DFNB3 phenotype in human (Irshad et al., 2012). The mouse and rat models used for this disease are shaker 2 mouse and LEW/Ztm-ci2 rat respectively (Held et al., 2011). Genetic analysis in laboratory rats, however, is much less advanced
than in mice.
It is partly because of the relatively high cost of rat breeding programs and because until recently it has been much more difficult to modify the rat germ line by gene targeting (Herrera and Ruiz, 2005).
Animal models for human genetic diseases ,Yasir Sharif and Saba Irshad* , Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. . African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 11(86), pp. 15200-15205, 25 October, 2012, ISSN 1684-5315 2012 Academic
Mouse The mouse (Mus musculus) is particularly well suited to genetic studies and is an extensively used model of mammalian
development.
Its short generation time like rat has allowed large scale
The ability to construct mice with predetermined genetic modifications to the germ line (by transgenic technology and gene targeting in embryonic stem cells) has been a powerful tool in studying gene function and in creating models of human disease (Davidson and Christiaen, 2006).
Mouse models for deafness have revealed a variety of defective structures and functions found in humans. In recent years, it has become essential to use mouse models as
Animal models for human genetic diseases ,Yasir Sharif and Saba Irshad* , Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. . African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 11(86), pp. 15200-15205, 25 October, 2012, ISSN 1684-5315 2012 Academic Journals
Zebrafish There has been a very significant increase in the use of zebrafish for the study of disease processes in humans. Zebrafish reproduce easily and quickly and have morphological
diseases
Animal models for human genetic diseases ,Yasir Sharif and Saba Irshad* , Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. . African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 11(86), pp. 15200-15205, 25 October, 2012, ISSN 1684-5315 2012 Academic Journals
Chick RE1-silencing transcription factor (REST) region in Human phenotype DFNB55 for hearing impairment is also expressed in the chicks.
2002).
Animal models for human genetic diseases ,Yasir Sharif and Saba Irshad* , Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. . African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 11(86), pp. 15200-15205, 25 October, 2012, ISSN 1684-5315 2012 Academic Journals
Frog Frogs of the genus Xenopus (African clawed frog) have been particularly important models for investigating both embryonic development and cell biology.
Animal models for human genetic diseases ,Yasir Sharif and Saba Irshad* , Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. . African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 11(86), pp. 15200-15205, 25 October, 2012, ISSN 1684-5315 2012 Academic Journals
Invertebrate models
Invertebrate models are often easy and inexpensive to maintain, and can offer very large numbers of offspring and rapid generation times. These characteristics make them ideally suited to highthroughput genetic screening. The roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans and the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster are the two most widely studied invertebrates (Segalat, 2007).
Animal models for human genetic diseases ,Yasir Sharif and Saba Irshad* , Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. . African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 11(86), pp. 15200-15205, 25 October, 2012, ISSN 1684-5315 2012 Academic Journals
D. melanogaster is employed in a wide variety of studies ranging from early gene mapping, via linkage and
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