CHAPTER 3 HEREDITY AND VARIATION

3.1 CELL DIVISION

GENES DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACIDS DNA AND CHROMOSOMES

Genes units of inheritance that determine the characteristics of an individual Example colour and type of hair types of ear lobes Genes are found in long molecules called deoxyribonucleic acids DNA There are thousands of genes in a DNA molecule


DNA molecules are found in chromosomes Chromosomes are thread-like structure in the nucleus of cell Chromosomes exist in pairs so do genes Each pair of genes controls one characteristics of an individuals

CELL DIVISION
There are two types of cell division a) Mitosis b) Meiosis Mitosis a process whereby a cell divides into two identical cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent cell

Meiosis a process whereby a cell divide into four daughter cells each containing only half the chromosomes number of the parent cell

SIMILARITY AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

THE IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

Mitosis a) produces new cells for growing and replacing dead cells b) Maintain the genetic materials in the daughter cells c) Used in the techniques of cloning and tissue culture to produce crops with desireable traits

 Meiosis a) Produce gametes half the number of chromosomes b) Will result in differences among individuals of the same species when crossing over and random distribution of chromosomes occur

Exercise 3.1
1. State the meanings of a) Mitosis b )Meiosis 2. State two differences between mitosis and meiosis. 3. In which parts of a plant does mitosis occur? 4. In which parts of a flowering plant does meiosis occur? 5. A somatic cell in corn plants contains 20 chromosomes. How many chromosomes does each of its male gamete have?

3.2 THE PRINCIPLES AND MECHANISM OF INHERITANCE

a) b) There two types of genes Dominant genes Recessive genes Dominant genes genes that show the characteristics they control when paired with a dominant gene or recessive gene Recessive genes genes that only show the characteristics they control when paired with another recessive genes

MECHANISM OF TRAIT INHERITANCE

6 HOMOZYGOUS A person who has two identical genes Example CC or cc 7 HETEROZYGOUS A person wiyh two different genes Example Cc 8 PHENOTYPE Observable characteristics of an organism- Example curly hair straight hair being right-handed or left-handed

Exercise 3.2
1. Explain the following terms : ( a ) Dominant genes (b) Recessive genes 2. The figure below shows a monohybrid cross between two plants. R : gene for red flowers ( dominant) r : gene for white flowers ( recessive )

( a ) ( i) Complete the schematic diagram to show the inheritance of the colour of flowers in the plants. (ii) Determine the phenotype ratio of the F1 generation

3.3 SEX DETERMINATION AND THE OCCURRENCE OF TWINS IN HUMAN BEINGS

SIMILARITY AND THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IDENTICAL TWINS AND NON-IDENTICAL TWINS

Exercise 3.3
1.( a ) Name the two types of sex chromosomes. ( b )What is the function of sex chromosomes? 2. ( a ) State the number of autosomes and the type of sex chromosomes in the zygote produced from the fertilisation of an ovum by i. A sperm with ( 22 + X) chromosomes ii. A sperm with ( 22 + Y) chromosomes

( b ) Determine the sexes of babies in 2 (a)(i) and (a) (ii). ( c ) Is the sex of an offspring determined by an ovum or a sperm? ( d ) Explain your answer to 2 ( c ) 3. ( a ) Why is it possible for non-identical twins to have different sexes? ( b ) Do siamese twins have exactly the same genetic content? ( c ) Explain your answer to 3 a(b )

3.4 MUTATION

Mutation is the spontaneous change to the structure of genes or chromosomes in somatic cells or in gametes of an organism Two types of mutation are a) CHROMOSOME MUTATION change in the structure of number of chromosomes b) GENE MUTATION due to chemical changes in individual genes

a)

CHROMOSOME MUTATION

1) Downs syndrome Has 47 chromosomes in somatic cell Caused by the possession of an extra chromosomes 21 Characteristics flat cheeks and short neckssmall and narrow eyesshort broad hands and weak muscleslow resistance to disease mentally ang physically retarded

2. Klinefelters syndrome Will affecting males caused by the presence of three sex chromosomes XXY instead of usual two XY Characteristics posses some female characteristics

3) Turners syndrome Female who has 45 chromosomes has only one x chromosomes Characteristics no ovariesfails to develop normal secondary sexual characteristics short and has folds of skin on her neck

b)

GENE MUTATION

1) Colour blindness
The inability of a person to differentiate between colours The gene for colour blindness is recessive and carried in the X chromosome Colour blindness more common among males than females This is because females have two X chromosomes A female will only be colour blindness if she receives the recessive genes from both parents

2) Albinism Occurs when a gene mutation interferes with melanin body pigment Characteristics pinkish skin and eyes white hair

3) Haemophilia
Is a blood clotting disorder caused by a recessive gene carried by X chromosome Common among males than females carried by X chromosome Haemophilia patients face severe bleeding problems when they are woundedThis is because their blood takes a long time to coagulate around the wounds

The causes of mutation

Mutagens external factors to increase the chances of mutation Examples i. Radioactive rays enter body cells and change the structures of chromosomes or genes in the cells ii. Toxic chemicals such as pesticides may react with and damage DNA iii. Ultraviolet radiation cause mutation and skin cancer

3.6 VARIATION
Variation the differences among individuals of the same species Two types of variations are Continuos variation Discontinuos variation

The difference between continous variation and discontinuos variation

Terms of Continous variation Discontinuos differences variation Explanations There are No intermediate intermediate category between the categories between distinct categories the two extreme Example of traits weight skin colour the ability to roll the hair colour tongueblood group intelligence heightsextype of hair curly or straight being right-handed or left-handed

Terms of differences

Continous variation

Discontinuos variation

Factors influence

genetic and environmental factors

genetic factors

Shape of the graph

Factors which cause variation

Variation can caused by a) Genetic factors during meiosis Chromosomes crossing-over and random distribution during meiosis During crossing-over chromatids of a pair of chromosomes exchange genetic material

b) Environmental factors Include climatic changes nutrition and physical activities Example frequent exposure to the sun causes construction workers to have darker skin compared to office workers

The importance of variation

Enables us to differentiate individuals of the same species For the survival of a species when environmental conditions change In agriculture variation in crops and farm animals allows selective breeding to be carried out

Exercise 3.6
1. What is variation? Give two examples of variation among human beings. 2. Differentiate between continuous variation and discontinuous variation. 3. State two factors that can cause variation. 4. What is the importance of variation?