Generator Protn

Generator Protection
GRID
Technical Institute
This document is the exclusive property of Alstom Grid and shall not be transmitted by any means, copied, reproduced or modified without the prior written consent of Alstom Grid Technical Institute. All rights reserved.
The extent and types of protection specified will depend on the following factors :-
Type of prime mover and generator construction

MW and voltage ratings Mode of operation Method of connection to the power system Method of earthing
Generator Protection - P 2
Types of Prime Mover
Steam Turbines Gas Turbines Hydro Diesel
Construction
Mode of operation
Cylindrial Rotor Salient Pole (Hydro and small generators)
Ratings
Base load Peak lopping Standby Power from 200kVA to 1000MVA Voltage from 440V to 24kV
Connection to the Power System

1. Direct :
2. Via Transformer :
Generator Protection Requirements

To detect faults on the generator
To protection generator from the effects of abnormal power system operating conditions To isolate generator from system faults not cleared remotely Action required depends upon the nature of the fault. Usual to segregate protection functions into :
Urgent Non-urgent Alarm
Generator Faults
Mixture of mechanical and electrical problems. Faults include : Insulation Failure

Stator Rotor
Excitation system failure Prime mover / governor failure Bearing Failure Excessive vibration Low steam pressure etc.
System Conditions
Short circuits Overloads Loss of load Unbalanced load Loss of synchronism
Generator Failure
Generator Failure
Generator Failure
Generator Failure
Stator Earth Fault Protection

Fault caused by failure of stator winding insulation
Leads to burning of machine core welding of laminations
Rebuilding of machine core can be a very expensive process Earth fault protection is therefore a principal feature of any generator protection package TYPE OF PROTECTION OF METHOD EARTHING OF METHOD CONNECTION
Method of Earthing
Machine stator windings are surrounded by a mass of earthed metal Most probable result of stator winding insulation failure is a phase-earth fault Desirable to earth neutral point of generator to prevent dangerous transient overvoltages during arcing earth faults Several methods of earthing are in use Damage resulting from a stator earth fault will depend upon the earthing arrangement
Method of Earthing
Solidly Earthed Machines : Fault current is high
Rapid damage occurs
burning of core iron welding of laminations
Used on LV machines only
Method of Earthing
Generator - Transformer Units
IF ~ 10 15 A
IF ~ 200 300 A
Method of Earthing
Desirable to limit earth fault current :
limits damage reduces possibility of developing into phase - phase fault
Degree to which fault current is limited must take into account :

detection of earth faults as near as possible to the neutral point ease of discrimination with system earth fault protection (directly connected machines)
Method of Earthing : Fault Current
Limitation of Earth
Earth faults on the power system are not seen by the generator earth fault protection.
Discrimination not required can limit current to very low value. Sometimes down to 5A
Method of Earthing : Fault Current

Limit To Generator Full Load Current
Limitation of Earth
Most popular.
Used for ease of fault detection and discrimination. Residual connection of CTs can be used Can result in serious core damage.

Directly Connected Generators :
51N
Earthed Generator : Earth fault relay must be time delayed for co-ordination with other earth fault protection on the power system.
Unearthed Generators : Other generators connected in parallel will generally be unearthed.
50N
51N
Protection is restricted to faults on the generator, grading with power system earth fault protection is not required. A high impedance instantaneous relay can be used (Balanced Earth Fault protection).
Percentage Winding Protected

11.5kV; 75,000KVA
xV
250/1A
IS
xV R
For operation S(PRIMARY)
F xV R x.6600 x.200 33 1 x.200 x 0.8x 250
33
S(SECONDARY)
For protection of 90% of winding; x = 1-0.9 = 0.1

Relay setting = 0.8 x 0.1 = 0.08A = 8% of 1A

Generators connected via step-up transformer (resistance earthed) :
51N
50N
Instantaneous protection (50N) : System earth faults ARE not seen by generator earth fault protection instantaneous relay may be used. Set to 10% of resistor rating (avoids operation due to transient surges passed through generator transformer interwinding capacitance). Advantage : Fast
Time delayed protection (51N) : Time delay prevents operation on transient surges.
A more sensitive current setting may be used.

Set to 5% of resistor rating. Advantage : Sensitive On large machines considered worthwhile to use both instantaneous and time delayed.
Restricted Earth Fault Protection
RSTAB
64
Protects approx. 90 - 95% of generator winding.
Connections for Biased REF

2000/1 ?
500/1 ?
P342/3 Relay Terminal CT Inputs
z
E/F CT Input
Smaller rating machines may have only one (neutral) tail CT brought out for connection
Biased REF Protection Operating Characteristic

3
Differential current (x In) =I A +I B +I C +k.I

2
Operate
High sensitivity (5%)

Unit Protection FAST
0
Restrain K1 1 2 3 4
Effective bias (x In) = Max. phase current + k . I 2
Neutral Displacement / Residual Overvoltage - Earth Fault Protection
1 3 2
P340 Relay
(1) Derived measurement from 5-limb or 3 x 1 phase VT
(2) Directly measured from a broken delta VT input

(3) Directly measured across an earthing resistor
100% Stator Earth Fault Protection : Standard relays only cover 95% of winding.
Probability of fault occurring in end 5% is low.

On large machines 100% stator earth fault protection may be required.
Two methods :
Low Frequency Injection Third Harmonic Voltage Measurement
100% Stator Earth Fault Protection (27TN)
1 3 2
P340 Relay
(1) Derived measurement from 5-limb or 3 x 1 phase VT (2) 3rd harmonic overvoltage (3) 3rd harmonic undervoltage 3rd harmonic undervoltage supervised by 3 phase undervoltage and W/VA/Var at generator terminals
100% Stator Earth Fault Protection
Distribution of 3rd harmonic voltage along the stator winding (a) normal operation (b) stator earth fault at star point (c) stator earth fault at the terminals
100% Stator Earth Fault Low Frequency Injection

For Large Machines Only
Injection Transformer
Injection Frequency 12.5 20Hz

Alternative Injection Points
51
Provides protection during run up & Standstill

High cost due to injection equipment.
Overcurrent Protection
For small generators this may be the only protection applied. With solid earthing it will provide some protection against earth faults. For a single generator, CTs must be connected to neutral end of stator winding.
51
For parallel generators, CTs can be located on line side.
51
Differential Protection
Provides high speed protection for all fault types May be : High impedance type : Biased (low impedance) type CTs required in neutral end of winding
Relay
Differential Protection - Biased
BIAS
BIAS
OPERATE
Biased Differential Scheme

Differential Protection
INTERPOSING C.T.
Overall Differential Scheme
Interturn Protection (50DT)
IA2
IB2
IC2
Independent current settings per phase Single stage definite time delay
Neutral Displacement / Residual Overvoltage - Interturn Protection (59N)
1 3 2
Gen Relay
(1) Interturn, derived measurement from 5-limb or 3 x 1 phase VT (2) Interturn, directly measured from a broken delta VT input (3) 95% stator earth fault protection across an earthing resistor
Prime Mover Failure

Isolated Generators :
Machine slows down and stops. Other protection initiates shut down.
Parallel Sets :
System supplies power - generator operates as a motor. Seriousness depends on type of drive.
Steam Turbine Sets :

Steam acts as a coolant. Loss of steam causes overheating. Turbulence in trapped steam causes distortion of turbine blades. Motoring power 0.5% to 6% rated. Condensing turbines, rate of heating slow. Loss of steam instantly recognised.
Prime Mover Failure

Diesel Driven Sets :
Prime mover failure due to mechanical fault. Serious mechanical damage if allowed to persist. Motoring power from 35% rated for stiff machine, to 5% rated for run in machine.
Gas Turbines :
Motoring power 100% rated for single shaft machine, 10% to 15% rated for double shaft.
Hydro Sets :
Mechanical precautions taken if water level drops. Low head types - erosion and cavitation of runner can occur. Additional protection may be required.
Prime Mover Failure
Reverse Power Protection :

Reverse power measuring relays used where protection required.
Single phase relay is sufficient as prime mover failure results in balanced conditions.
Sensitive settings required - metering class CTs required for accuracy.
Reverse Power
Operational limits
P Q
-P= P 0
a natural = 0.16 o
a stable = 0.5 o
Unstable area Trip area
Unstable area
Blinders at 0.5 degrees reduces operation area for low power settings where the power factor is low to improve reliability of reverse power element
Low Forward Power

Operational limits
Trip area Unstable area Extended Trip area
a stable = 0.5 o
P= P 0
Trip area
To reduce the risk of overspeed damage to steam turbine generators a low forward power element is used for interlocking the generator CB and excitation for non urgent trips (eg thermal protection, stator earth fault for high impedance earthing). Turbine steam valves are tripped immediatelay and when power output has reduced the generator CB and excitation are tripped.
Loss of Excitation
Effects Single Generator : Loses output volts and therefore load. Parallel Generators :
Operate as induction generator (> synch speed) Flux provided by reactive stator current drawn from system-leading pf Slip frequency current induced in rotor - abnormal heating
Situation does not require immediate tripping, however, large machines have short thermal time constants - should be unloaded in a few seconds.
Loss of Excitation
Impedance seen by relay follows locus shown below :
X
Load Impedance R Offset Prevents operation on pole slips Diameter Typically : Offset 50-75%Xd Diameter 50-100% XS
Impedance Locus
Relay Characteristic Time Delayed
Pole Slipping
Sudden changes or shocks in an electrical power system may lead to power system oscillations - regular variations of I and V and angular system separation In a recoverable situation these oscillations will die away a power swing In an unrecoverable situation the oscillations become so severe that synchronisation between the generator and the power system is lost - out of step/pole slipping
Causes
Transient system faults Failure of the generator governor Failure of the generators excitation control Reconnection of an islanded system without synchronisation Switching transients on a weak system
Pole slipping
Recoverable Out-of-Step Power Swing (Power System)
Unrecoverable
Loss of Synchronism Pole-Slipping (Generator)
Theory of pole slipping
Simplified Two Machine System:
Where: EG represents the generator terminal voltage; ZG represents the generator reactance; ZT is the reactance of step-up transform;
Zs represents the impedance of the power system connected to the generation unit
Es represents the system voltage.
Loss of synchronisation Characteristics X EG/ES=1 S
EG/ES>1 L R
EG/ES<1
Conventional Pole Slipping Protection

Blinder
X ZA ZC
Reactance Line
Zone 2 Zone 1
Lens
ZB
Pole Slipping Protection - 78
Conventional lenticular (lens) characteristic

2 Zones defined by reactance line Zone 1 - pole slip in the generator Zone 2 - pole slip in the power system Separate counters per zone (1-20)
Setting to detect pole slipping when :

Generating Motoring Both (Pumped storage generator)
Pole Slipping Protection - 78
Pole slip when generating

Impedance position on RHS of lens characteristic Impedance crosses lens on RHS Impedance spends >T1 (15ms) in RHS of lens Impedance spends >T2 (15ms) in LHS of lens Impedance leaves lens on LHS Zone 1 and 2 counter is incremented if in Z1 Zone 2 counter is incremented if in Z2 Trip when zone counter value exceeded
Pole slipping when motoring is the opposite
State Transition Diagram

(Reset_Timer Time Out)
Actions are the same as State Machine Entry
State Machine Entry

Reset Trip_ Signals; Reset Start_ Signals; Reset Flag_Zone1; Reset All Counters; Reset All Timers; Zm = R1 or R3 Zm = R4 IF(Mode_Both) Flag_Mode=!Flag_Mode;
No Signal Condition*
VTS-FAST-BLOCK
IDLE
Zm = R1 . Reset Start_Signals; Reset Flag_Zone1; IF(Any Trip_Signal) Reset Counters; Reset Trip_Signals;
Zm = R2 Start Timer1 Zm = R1 or R4 Reset Timer1 Zm = R3 but Timer1<T1 Reset Timer1
Zm = R4 or R2 or R3
DETECTED
Zm = R4 but Timer2 < T2 Reset Flag_Zone1; Reset Timer2;
Zm = R1 or R2 Reset Flag_Zone1; Reset Timer2;
Zm = R2
START
(Zm = R4) & Timer2 > T2) If (C2==0) Start Reset_Timer; C2++; Set Zone2_Start; if(C2>=Count2) Set Zone2_Trip ; If (Flag_Zone1) C1++; Set Zone1_Start; if(C1>=Count1) Set Zone1_Trip; Reset Timer2;
(Zm = R3) & Timer1 > T1) Flag_Zone1=Zone1Pu(); Reset Timer1; Start Timer2;
CONFIRM
*No Signal Condition (VA<1V or I <0.02A)

Zm = R3
RTDS Pole Slip Simulation
Local Load 132 kV BUS T/line 140 km 132/13.5 kV 11 kV BUS
Yd1 Grid System Generator with AVR and Governor control
Pole Slipping - 80% Load, Local 3 ph fault
Loss of excitation at 100% machine loading
Rotor Thermal Protection
Unbalanced loading leads to negative sequence current Double frequency slip Rapid overheating of rotor
Unbalanced Loading
Gives rise to negative phase sequence (NPS) currents results in contra-rotating magnetic field
Stator flux cuts rotor at twice synchronous speed

Induces double frequency current in field system and rotor body Resulting eddy currents cause severe over heating
Use negative sequence overcurrent relay Relay should have inverse time characteristic to match generator I22t withstand
Unbalanced Loading
Machines are assigned NPS current withstand values :

Continuous NPS rating, I2R (PU CMR) Short time NPS rating, I22t (K)
If possible level of system unbalance approaches machine continuous withstand, protection is required.
Overload Protection
high load current heating of stator and rotor insulation failure Governor Setting Should prevent serious overload automatically. Generator may lose speed if required load can not be met by other sources.
Stator Thermal Protection

Current operated
Over power protection Overcurrent element Thermal replica

RTD Thermal Probes
PT100 Platinum probes Embedded in machine Alarm and trip thresholds for each RTD
Overload Protection (1)
Thermal replica for stator overload protection

Current based on I1 and I2 Heating and cooling time constants Non-volatile memory thermal state Alarm output
Time
Current
Rotor Earth Fault Protection
Field circuit is an isolated DC system. Insulation failure at a single point :

No fault current, therefore no danger Increase chance of second fault occurring
Insulation failure at a second point :

Shorts out part of field winding Heating (burning of conductor) Flux distortion causing violent vibration of rotor
Desirable to detect presence of first earth fault and give an alarm.

Potentiometer Method
Exciter
Required sensitivity approximately 5% exciter voltage. No auxiliary supply required. Blind spot - require manually operated push button to vary tapping point.

AC Injection Method
Brushless Machines No access to rotor circuit
AC Auxiliary Supply
R
Require special slip rings for measurement If slip rings not present, must use telemetering techniques (expensive)

Brushless Machine
A brushless generator has an excitation system consisting of: A main excitor with rotating armature and stationary field windings A rotating rectifier assembly, carried on the main shaft line out A controlled rectifier producing the d.c. field voltage for the main exciter field from the a.c. source (often a small `pilot` exciter) Hence: No brushes are required in the field circuit All control is carried out in the field circuit of the main exciter Detection of rotor circuit earth fault is still necessary Based on dedicated rotor-mounted system that has a telemetry link to provide an alarm/data
Generator Back-Up Protection

Typical use : Very or extremely inverse for LV machines Normal inverse for HV machines
Must consider generator voltage decrement characteristic for close-in faults. With reliable AVR system, conventional overcurrent relays may be used. Otherwise, voltage controlled / restrained relays are required.
10 x FL
with AVR Full Load
no AVR Cycles
Generator Back-Up Protection

Voltage Restrained
Operating characteristic is continuously varied depending on measured volts. Alternatively, use impedance relay.
Voltage Controlled
Relay switches between fault characteristic and load characteristic depending on measured volts.
Generator Back-Up Protection (2)

10 O/L CHARAC
1.0
t sec
FAULT CHARAC LARGEST OUTGOING FEEDER
6.6kV 5MVA 115% XS 500/5 200/5
0.1
GENERATOR DECREMENT CURVE
0.01 100
240 600 1000 3000
10,000 AMPS
Voltage Dependent Overcurrent Protection (51V)
I> Fault k.I> Terminal Volts Voltage control Load
I> Fault k.I> Terminal Volts Voltage restraint Load
Impedance Relay
X Load Fault R Underimpedance
2 Zones of protection
Zone 1 - Set to operate at 70% rated load impedance. Back-up protection for generator-transformer, busbar and outgoing feeders. Time delayed for co-ordination with external feeder phase fault protection. Zone 2 Set to 50% transformer impedance. Back-up protection for generator phase faults. Faster time delay to coordinate with generator phase fault protection
Under & Over Frequency Conditions
Over Frequency
Results from generator over speed caused by sudden loss of load.

In isolated generators may be due to failure of speed governing system.
Over speed protection may be provided by mechanical means.

Desirable to have over frequency relay with more sensitive settings.
Under & Over Frequency Conditions

Under Frequency Results from loss of synchronous speed due to excessive overload. In isolated generators may be due to failure of speed governing system. Under frequency condition gives rise to:
Overfluxing of stator core at nominal volts Plant drives operating at lower speeds - can affect generator output Mechanical resonant condition in turbines
Desirable to supply an under frequency relay. Protection may be arranged to initiate load shedding as a first step.
df/dt (81R) Loadshedding

df/dt+t: Time Delayed ROCOF
Df/dt can operate quicker than underfrequency for large changes in frequency Rolling window is better than fixed window as gives faster operation Averaging cycles is typically 5 to provide some stability for power system oscillations Stages can be used for load shedding or alarm/tripping of the generator
Under & Over Voltage Conditions
Protection
Under & over voltage protection usually provided as part of excitation system.
For most applications an additional high set over voltage relay is sufficient.
Time delayed under and over voltage protection may be provided.
Under & Over Voltage Conditions

Over Voltage
Results from generator over speed caused by sudden loss of load.

May be due to failure of the voltage regulator. An over voltage condition :
Causes overfluxing at nominal frequency Endangers integrity of insulation
Under Voltage
No danger to generator. May cause stalling of motors. Prolonged under voltage indicates abnormal conditions.
Generator Abnormal Frequency Protection (81AB)

6 independent bands of abnormal frequency protection Accumulation of time up to 1000 hours in each band Band data provided by generator manufacturer Bands match resonance, blade stress frequencies Dead band timer before accumulation starts allows time for resonance to established
When generator is off-line bands can be blocked

Generator Abnormal Frequency Protection (81AB)

Band 1
f nom Band 2
Band 3
Band 4
Timer 1 Timer 2 Timer 3 Timer 4

Application Negative Sequence Overvoltage (47)

Swapping of 2 phases to motor (pump water) CB a b c Block CB Close Generator/Motor
Busbar
b a c
Generator/Motor
47 Negative Sequence Overvoltage
Hydro machines can operate as motors/pumps by swapping 2 phases (phase rotation is reversed)
Use of Alternative Setting Groups Example : Pumped Storage Unit

When the units are being used to generate power the protection could be as below:
87G 27 & 59 81U & 81O 32R 51N 40 51V 46
Generator differential Under & over voltage Under & over frequency Reverse power Stator earth fault Loss of excitation Voltage dependent overcurrent Negative phase sequence
1 2 3 4
When the units pump water the protection applied will change
Four groups available
Phase Rotation
Phase rotation for hydro generator/motor applications where 2 phases are swapped to make the machine operate as a pump (motor)
CT1 CT2
G
Phase Reversal Switches
P340 Case 1 : Phase Reversal Switches affecting all CTs and VTs
CT1
CT2
G
Phase Reversal Switches
P343/4/5
Case 2 : Phase Reversal Switches affecting CT1 only

Phase Rotation
Phase rotation settings can be changed for generator/motor operation using 2 setting groups
Setting SYSTEM CONFIG Phase Sequence VT Reversal Range Standard ABC / Reverse ACB No Swap / A-B Swapped / B-C Swapped / C-A Swapped No Swap / A-B Swapped / B-C Swapped / C-A Swapped No Swap / A-B Swapped / B-C Swapped / C-A Swapped Default Standard ABC No Swap
CT1 Reversal
No Swap
CT2 Reversal (P343/4/5 only)
No Swap
Unintentional Energisation at Standstill
50
27
& VTS
tPU tDO
&
Trip
Overcurrent element detects breaker flashover or starting current (as motor) Three phase undervoltage detection VTS function checks no VT anomalies
Check Synch (25)
Check is used when closing generator CB to ensure synchronism with system voltage.
Check synch relay usually checks 3 things: Phase angle difference Voltage Frequency difference
Check Synchronising (25)

Phase angle difference
Single phase comparison Typical setting is 20 to reduce mechanical stresses on generators.
Can select either A-N, B-N, C-N, A-B, B-C, C-A is settings
Voltage
Check synch relay inoperative if : Generator/busbar voltage is below or above preset limit (independent settings for generator and busbar under/overvoltages) voltage difference exceeds preset limit
Typical settings for undervoltage: 80 - 85% Vn Typical settings for difference voltage: 6 - 10% Vn
Frequency difference
Usually measured by time to traverse phase angle limits or direct slip frequency measurement (Fgen Fbus)
Eg Timer setting of 2 secs over 20 : Slip frequency = 2 x (20 x ) / 360 = 0.055Hz = 0.11% (50Hz) Timer usually set to 2 secs or 10 x C.B. closing time whichever is greater).
Check Synchronising (25)

Check synch has 2 stages Check Sync 1/2
Usually only 1 stage is required for generator applications Check Sync 2 has CB closing time compensation Check Sync2 only permits closure for decreasing angles of slip
Check synch has vector compensation to account for phase shift across transformer with Main VT Vect Grp setting 0-11 Check synch has ratio correction to correct ratio errors of VTs Voltage monitors for dead/live generator/busbar System Split output operates for phase angle > setting adjustable from 90 to 175 degrees
Check Synch (25)
Check synch stages 1 and 2

Typical Schemes
GRID
Technical Institute
Protection Package for Diesel Generator
87 G
64 R 32 51 V
32 64R 64S 51V
Reverse Power Rotor Earth Fault Stator Earth Fault Voltage Dependent Overcurrent 87G Generator Differential
Protection P343
64 R
Overall Protection of Generator Installation

Generator Feeder Protn. Overcurrent Voltage Restraint
51 V
Restricted E/F
Buchholz Winding Temp.
Reverse Power Field Failure
32 40 87
Generator Differential Rotor E/F Prime Mover Protection Negative Phase Sequence
64R
46
Overall Gen/Trans Diffl Protn.
Stator E/F
64S
Overall Protection of Generator Installation

Generator Feeder Protection
O/C
Circuit Breaker Fail
Busbar Protection
Restricted E/F
O/C + E/F
Buchholz Winding Temperature

O/C
Buchholz
V.T.s
Transformer Overfluxing
Standby E/F
Restricted E/F
Permissive (Low Power) Interlock Field Failure
Pole Slipping
Generator Differential
Unit Transformer Differential Protn.
Rotor E/F
Overall Generator Transformer Differential Protn.
Low Steam Pressure, Loss of Vacuum Loss of Lubricating Oil Loss of Boiler Water Governor Failure Vibration, Rotor Distortion
Negative Phase Sequence
Stator E/F Protection
Embedded Generation
GRID
Technical Institute
Co-generation/Embedded Machines
AR?
PES system
81U/O 27/59 59N
Frequency Voltage Residual Voltage ROCOF
50/51N 47/46 25
O/C & E/F NPS Voltage

NPS O/C Check Synch Islanded load fed unearthed
df/dt
dV
Voltage Vector Shift
Embedded Generation
USED TO PROVIDE:
Emergency Power Upon Loss Of Main Supply Operate In Parallel To Reduce Site Demand Excess Generation May Be Exported Or Sold
Engineering Recommendation G59
ER G59 relates to the connection of generating plant to the distribution systems of licensed distribution network operators (DNOs) ER G83/1 covers connection of generating units rated < 16A / phase in parallel with LV distribution system ER G59 COVERS:
Safety Aspects Legal Requirements Operation Protection

General Requirements Protective Equipment The main function of the protection systems and settings is to prevent Generating Plant supporting an islanded section of the Distribution System when it would or could pose a hazard to the Distribution System or customers connected to it.

LoM (Loss of Mains = Islanding) Protection Requirements To disconnect the Generating Plant from the Distribution System in the event of loss of one or more phases of the DNOs supply.
LoM is required to ensure requirements for earthing and out of synch closure are complied with and customers are not supplied with voltage and frequency outside statutory limits
Loss of Mains Problem

Loss of mains is where a generator is inadvertently isolated from the grid and continues to supply local load
BUS-BAR FAULT
33kV DISTRIBUTION
33/11kV
CIRCUIT BREAKER
Loss of mains can be caused by:

Protection tripping Accidentally due to network reconfiguration
SECTIONALISING SWITCH
400V DG
Loss of Mains Problem
Islanding is unacceptable for a number of reasons:

Safety risk - for example, through personnel working on the network under the assumption that no parts of the network are energised
Stresses from out of synchronism re-closure
Loss of system earth where the earth is on the star winding of a network transformer. This can cause problems for existing earth fault protection to detect earth faults if the system is unearthed.
Utility is legally bound to maintaining quality of supply (frequency and voltage ) to local demand.
Existing LoM Methods Performance Assessment
Loss of mains performance can be assessed in terms of sensitivity and stability

Sensitivity
Smallest possible mismatch between local generation and the demand at the instant of islanding. Also referred to as non-detection zone
Stability
Stability for different fault types with varying duration and retained voltage at the point of measurement
When designing LoM method objective is to have a small non detection zone and be stable for as many fault characteristics as possible STABILITY
Network faults
SENSITIVITY
Generator/demand Imbalance
Existing Loss of Mains Methods

Passive Methods
Under/over frequency and voltage Requires large change in load, time delayed
Df/dt rate of change of frequency Sensitive, fast operating Voltage vector shift Not as sensitive as df/dt, fast operating Direct inter-tripping
Not load dependent, fast, expensive, signalling can be complex
Active Methods
Active frequency drift
Reactive Error export
There is an abundance of active methods proposed in the technical literature, however, their application in practice has been limited to date. The traditional protection philosophy of independence from other systems makes the introduction of these methods difficult.
Loss of Mains Methods Voltage Vector Shift
Single phase line diagram showing generator parameters
R
E
jX
IL VT
Vector Diagram Representing Steady State Condition
IL
VT
IL X ILR

Transient voltage vector change q due to change in load current IL
E VT VT
ILX ILR
IL
IL
ILX
Loss of Mains Methods - ROCOF df/dt

The rate of change of speed, or frequency, following a power disturbance can be approximated by: P.f df/dt =
2GH
where
P = Change in power output between synchronised and islanded operation f = Rated frequency G = Machine rate MVA H = Inertia constant
Loss of Mains Methods - ROCOF

P341 df/dt calculation
df/dt =
Fn - fn - 3 cycle
3 cycle
Two consecutive calculations must give a result above the setting threshold before a trip decision can be initiated
Loss of Mains Methods - ROCOF

df/dt+t: Time Delayed ROCOF t Start
Pick up cycles
Trip f Time delay df/dt Setting

G59 Other Protection

Neutral voltage Overcurrent Earth fault Phase unbalance Reverse power
Used when generator does not export power during normal operation
G59 Protection Settings

Protection Settings for Long-Term Parallel Operation
Prot Function Small Power Station LV Connected HV Connected Medium Power Station
Setting
U/V st 1 U/V st 2 O/V st 1 O/V st 2 Vph-n -13% Vph-n -20% Vph-n +10% Vph-n +15%
Time
2.5s* 0.5s 1.0s 0.5s
Setting
Vph-ph -13% Vph-ph -20% Vph-ph +10% Vph-ph +13%
Time
2.5s 0.5s 1.0s 0.5s
Setting
Vph-ph -20%
Time
2.5s*
Vph-ph +10%
1.0s
U/F st 1
U/F st 2 O/F st 1 O/F st 2 LoM (Vector Shift) LoM (RoCoF)
47.5Hz
47Hz 51.5Hz 52Hz K1 x 6 degrees K1 x 0.125 Hz/s
20s
0.5s 90s 0.5s
47.5Hz
47Hz 51.5Hz 52Hz K1 x 6 degrees K2 x 0.125Hz/s
20s
0.5s 90s 0.5s
47.5Hz
47Hz 51.5Hz
20s
0.5s 90s
Intertripping expected Intertripping expected
Notes: K1 = 1.0 (low impedance networks or 1.66-2 (high impedance networks) K2 = 1.0 (low impedance networks or 1.6 (high impedance networks) A fault level of < 10% system design max fault level is high impedance * Might need to be reduced if auto-reclose time <3s
G59 Protection for HV Generator connected to DNO HV System for Parallel Operation Only
G59 Protection for HV Generator connected to DNO HV System for Standby and Parallel Operation
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GRID
Technical Institute

Generator Protn

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Generator Protection

Type of prime mover and generator construction

Cylindrial Rotor Salient Pole (Hydro and small generators)

Connection to the Power System

Generator Protection Requirements

Mixture of mechanical and electrical problems. Faults include : Insulation Failure

Short circuits Overloads Loss of load Unbalanced load Loss of synchronism

Stator Earth Fault Protection

Rapid damage occurs

burning of core iron welding of laminations

Used on LV machines only

Degree to which fault current is limited must take into account :

Method of Earthing : Fault Current

Method of Earthing : Fault Current

Stator Earth Fault Protection

Unearthed Generators : Other generators connected in parallel will generally be unearthed.

Percentage Winding Protected

For operation S(PRIMARY)

F xV R x.6600 x.200 33 1 x.200 x 0.8x 250

For protection of 90% of winding; x = 1-0.9 = 0.1

Stator Earth Fault Protection

Stator Earth Fault Protection

A more sensitive current setting may be used.

Restricted Earth Fault Protection

Protects approx. 90 - 95% of generator winding.

Connections for Biased REF

P342/3 Relay Terminal CT Inputs

Biased REF Protection Operating Characteristic

Differential current (x In) =I A +I B +I C +k.I

High sensitivity (5%)

Effective bias (x In) = Max. phase current + k . I 2

Neutral Displacement / Residual Overvoltage - Earth Fault Protection

(1) Derived measurement from 5-limb or 3 x 1 phase VT

(2) Directly measured from a broken delta VT input

Stator Earth Fault Protection

Probability of fault occurring in end 5% is low.

100% Stator Earth Fault Protection (27TN)

100% Stator Earth Fault Protection

100% Stator Earth Fault Low Frequency Injection

Injection Frequency 12.5 20Hz

Provides protection during run up & Standstill

Differential Protection - Biased

Biased Differential Scheme

Overall Differential Scheme

Interturn Protection (50DT)

Neutral Displacement / Residual Overvoltage - Interturn Protection (59N)

Prime Mover Failure

Steam Turbine Sets :

Prime Mover Failure

Prime Mover Failure

Reverse Power Protection :

Unstable area Trip area

Low Forward Power

Relay Characteristic Time Delayed

Theory of pole slipping

Simplified Two Machine System:

Loss of synchronisation Characteristics X EG/ES=1 S

Conventional Pole Slipping Protection

Pole Slipping Protection - 78

Conventional lenticular (lens) characteristic

Setting to detect pole slipping when :

Pole Slipping Protection - 78

Pole slip when generating