Grading: Homework 25%

Hour Exams 25%

Labs 20%
Final Exam 30%

Grade Distribution: A to A-: 25-35%,
B+ to B-: 35-45%
C+ to C-: 20-30%,
D to F: < 5%

Chapter 1 - History nothing on Final

ME 350 Lecture 24 Final Review
Chapter 2, 3, & 4 Material Properties
Unit cell
Grain boundaries
Dislocations
Cyrstal structure (BCC, FCC, HCP)
Stress-strain graphs & calculations
Thermal expansion
Viscosity
Not on final: durameter or hardness
calculations, electrochemistry, electrolysis, or
thermal conductivity
Three Crystal Structures in Metals
1. Body-centered cubic (BCC)
e.g. Chromium, Iron, Molybdenum, Tungsten
2. Face centered cubic (FCC)
e.g. Aluminum, Copper, Gold, Lead, Silver, Nickel
3. Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
e.g. Magnesium, Titanium, Zinc

Figure 2.8 Three types of crystal structure in metals.
Imperfections (Defects) in Crystals
Imperfections often arise due to inability of solidifying
material to continue replication of unit cell, e.g., grain
boundaries in metals
Imperfections can also be introduced purposely; e.g.,
addition of alloying ingredient in metal
Types of defects:
1. Point defects
2. Line defects
3. Surface defects
Typical Stress-Strain Plot
Ultimate tensile
strength (or TS)
Yield Strength (or yield point
or yield stress, or elastic limit)
Problem 3.3 in Text p63
A test specimen has a gage length of 2.0 in and an area = 0.5 in
2
. During the
test the specimen yields (0.2% yield pt.) under a load of 32,000 lb at a gage
length of 2.0083 in. The max load of 60,000 lb is reached at a gage length =
2.60 in. Determine (a) yield strength, (b) modulus of elasticity, and (c) the
tensile strength.

(a) Y = = 6.40 x 10
4
Psi

(b) = = 2.14 x 10
-3


E = = 2.99 x 10
7
Psi

(c) A
f
= A
o
(L
o
/L
f
) = 0.5 (2/2.6) = 0.385 in
2

TS = = 1.56 x 10
5
Psi
2
5 . 0
000 , 32
in
lbs
A
F
=
002 . 0 ln
0

L
L
00214 . 0
000 , 64
=
c
o
2
385 . 0
000 , 60
in
lb
A
F
=
Recrystallization in Metals
Most metals strain harden at room temperature
according to the flow curve (n > 0)
But if heated to sufficiently high temperature (above
the recrystallization temperature) and deformed,
strain hardening does not occur
Instead, new grains are formed that are free of strain
The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material; that is,
n = 0
T
r
0.5 T
m
(temp in Kelvin) Kelvin!
Viscosity
Viscosity can be defined using two moving parallel plates
Viscosity is the ratio of shear stress to shear rate:







For Newtonian fluids, viscosity is a constant
For non-Newtonian fluids, it is not
1 milli-Pascal-second (mPas) = 1 centipoise (cP)
A
F
= t
dy
dv
=

t
q

=
Shear Stress: Shear Rate
Viscosity:
Viscoelastic Behavior
A temperature and strain rate dependent material
property that is a combination of viscosity and elasticity
Viscous solid exhibits a plastic deformation to a long duration
small stress where material flows or creeps.
Elastic liquid exhibits an elastic response to a short duration
high stress
Examples: aluminum, synthetic polymers, wood
Viscous permanent deformation of a cheap soccer ball sitting
in the sun
Elastic liquid polymer swells coming from extruder
Thermal Expansion
Density of a material is a function of temperature
In general, with increased temperature, density
decreases
Change in density is measured by coefficient of
thermal expansion o
Change in length per degree of temperature, such as
mm/mm/C (in/in/F)
L
2
- L
1
= o L
1
(T
2
- T
1
) = o L
o
T
where o = coefficient of thermal expansion; L
1
and L
2

are lengths corresponding respectively to temperatures
T
1
and T
2

Specific Heat
The quantity of heat energy required to increase
the temperature of a unit mass of material by one
degree
Q = M C T
where Q = amount of heat energy (joule or calorie);
M = its mass (kg or lb); C = specific heat of the
material; and T = change in temperature
Volumetric specific heat = C
where = density

Chapter 5
Tolerance, Accuracy & Precision
Nothing on Final
Chapter 34 Rapid Prototype
Know basic info
Time to build calculations
Classification of RP Technologies
The RP classification is based on the form of the
starting material:
1. Liquid-based: monomers are photopolymers or
thermoplastics deposited in layers (SLA & FDM & Objet)
2. Solid-based: solid sheets that are laminated to create the
solid part (LOM)
3. Powder-based: powders that are bonded (thermally or by
selective dispensing of a binder) (SLS & 3DP)
Part Build Time in SLA
Time to complete a single layer :
where T
i
= time to complete layer i; A
i
= area of layer i; v
= average scanning speed of the laser beam at the
surface; D = diameter of the spot size, assumed
circular; and T
d
= delay time between layers to
reposition the worktable
d
i
i
T
vD
A
T + =
Chapter 5 & 6 Metals & Ceramics
Alloys
Binary Phase diagrams
Iron-carbon Phase diagram
Not on Final: designation numbers, or
superalloys.
Inverse Lever Rule - Example
% 50
40
20
=

L S
C S
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
2000

1500

1000
% A
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

C

Liquid
Solidus Line
Liquidus Line
Tie Line

+ Liquid
Solid phase composition:
60% A 40% B

Liquid phase composition:
20% A 80% B
Solid phase proportion:


Liquid phase proportion:
S C L
% 50
40
20
=

L S
L C
Nickel-Copper Binary
Phase Diagram:
A melt is formed with
35% Ni and 65% Cu, it
is slowly cooled from
1300C to ~1270C:
initial solid is 49% Ni,
initial liquid is 35% Ni
middle solid is 43%Ni
middle liquid is 30% Ni
at end solid is 35% Ni
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
= austenite (FCC)
= ferrite (BCC)
Fe
3
C = cementite
Chapter 8 Polymers
Properties and T/F
No molecular weight questions
Types of Polymers
Polymers are described as plastics and
rubbers
Three categories:
1. Thermoplastic polymers
2. Thermosetting polymers
3. Elastomers
where (1) and (2) are plastics and (3) are
rubbers
Crystallinity and Properties
As crystallinity is increased in a polymer
Density increases
Stiffness, strength, and toughness increases
Heat resistance increases
If the polymer is transparent in the amorphous
state, it becomes opaque when partially
crystallized
Strength vs. Temperature
Chapter 21, 22 & 23 Metal Machining
Material removal rates
Merchant equation
Cooks equation
Taylor tool life
No picture identification on Final
As the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed
Machining
= rake angle
Cutting Conditions in Machining
Material removal rate can
be computed as
M
RR
= v f d
where v = cutting speed;
f = feed;
d = depth of cut
Determining Shear Plane Angle
Based on the geometric parameters of the
orthogonal model, the shear plane angle | can
be determined as:
where r = chip ratio, and o = rake angle
o
o
|
sin
cos
tan
r
r

=
1
The Merchant Equation
Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation
can occur, the work material will select a shear plane
angle | that minimizes energy, given by


Derived by Eugene Merchant
Based on orthogonal cutting, but approximate validity
extends to 3-D machining
To increase shear plane angle (more efficient cutting)
Increase the rake angle
Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of friction)

2 2
45
| o
| + =
Cutting Temperature
Derived by Nathan Cook from dimensional analysis
using experimental data for various work materials
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface;
U = specific energy; where U = F
c
v / R
MR

v = cutting speed;
t
o
= chip thickness before cut;
C = volumetric specific heat of work material;
K = thermal diffusivity of work material
333 . 0
4 . 0
|
.
|

\
|
= A
K
vt
C
U
T
o

333 . 0
4 . 0
|
.
|

\
|

=
K
vt
d f C
F
o c

Log-log plot of cutting speed vs tool life.

Tool Life vs. Cutting Speed
Taylor Tool Life Equation
C vT
n
=
where v = cutting speed;
T = tool life; and
n and C are parameters that depend on feed,
depth of cut, work material, and tooling material,
but mostly on material (work and tool).
n is the slope of the plot
C is the intercept on the speed axis at one minute tool life
Cutting Fluids
A liquid or gas used to improve cutting performance
Functions:
1. Improve chip removal
2. Reduce cutting temperature
3. Improve surface finish
Types:
1. Coolants generally water and more effective at
higher cutting speeds
2. Lubricants generally oil based and more effective
at lower cutting speeds
Chapter 9, 10, & 11 Casting
Parts
Heat energy
Molten metal flow
Chvorinovs rule
Part Shrinkage
No fixing of casting defects on Final
Sand Casting Mold
Molten Metal Flow
Bernoullis Theorem the sum of energies (head, pressure,
kinetic, and friction) at any two points in a flowing liquid are
equal



where, h = head (cm); p = pressure (N/cm
2
);
= density(g/cm
3
); v = velocity (cm/s);
g = gravity (981 cm/s
2
); F = head loss due to friction (cm)

Ignoring friction and assuming no applied pressure.
2
2
2 2
2 1
2
1 1
1
2 2
F
g
v p
h F
g
v p
h + + + = + + +

g
v
h
g
v
h
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
+ = +
Solidification Time
T
TS
depends on size and shape of casting by
relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule




where T
TS
= total solidification time;
V = volume of the casting;
A = surface area of casting;
n = exponent with typical value = 2;
C
m
= mold constant (determined experimentally)
n
m TS
A
V
C T
|
.
|

\
|
=
Solidification Shrinkage
Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid
phase has a higher density than the liquid phase
Solidification Shrinkage %, , and Thermal Contraction %,
, for common metals are in Table 10.1 (pg 207)
Final metal volume, V
final
= V
o
(1-)(1-)
Linear dimension change L
final
= L
o

Exception: cast iron with high C content
Graphitization during final stages of freezing causes
expansion that counteracts volumetric decrease
associated with phase change
( )
3
1
) 1 )( 1 ( | o
Chapter 12 - Glass
Material properties
Raw materials and preparation
Manufacturing processes (float glass, glass
tubes, etc)
Chapter 13 Polymer Extrusion & Forming
Properties
Flow calculations
Processes
Extruded polymer "remembers" its previous shape when
in the larger cross section of the extruder, tries to return
to it after leaving the die orifice
Die swell, a manifestation of viscoelasticity in polymer melts, as
depicted here on exiting an extrusion die.
Viscoelasticity Example: Die Swell
Swell ratio:
r
s
= D
x
/ D
d

Extruder Screw Melt Flow (pg 264-265)
Q
x
= Q
d
- Q
b

Drag Flow Q
d

Back Pressure Flow Q
b

Flight angle A?
tan A = p / D
Q
d
= 0.5
2
D
2
N d
c
sinA cosA
Where, D flight screw diameter
N screw rotational speed
d
c
screw channel depth
A flight angle

Q
b

Where, p head pressure (die)
melt viscosity
L length of the barrel
Assumes leakage flow is negligible

L
A Dd p
c
q
t
12
sin
2 3
Extruder Screw Melt Flow (pg 266)
2
cot 6
c
d
A DNLq t
Boundary Conditions:
1) With no back pressure
Q
x
= Q
max
= Q
d
2) With no flow
Q
x
= 0 = Q
d
Q
b
,

p
max
=
Q
max

p
max

Extruder characteristic
Q
x
= Q
max
(Q
max
/p
max
)p
K
s
= (for round opening)

D
d
effective die opening
L
d
effective die opening length
d
d
L
D
q
t
128
4
Die characteristic
Q
x
= K
s
p
Intersection (Q
x
,p) known as operating point
Head pressure
M
e
l
t

f
l
o
w

DOE
Quality control
Tolerance buildup calculations
Effect calculations
Characteristic equation
Graph of cumulative probability of effects
Determining effect significance
A part with a hole must match up with another containing
a pin. The hole and pin tolerances (2 ) are 15 mil.
Thus the clearance distribution between the parts is:
2 2
pin hole pin hole
o o +
Quality Control: Gaussian Distribution
( ) ( )
2 2
15 15 35 mil mil mil +
mil mil 21 35
Effect of Variables?
Graphically, the
effect of variable 1
is the difference
between the average
results of the planes
food
sleep
62
(+,-,+)
coffee
75
(+,+,+)
59
(-,+,+)
43
(-,-,+)
56
(-,-,-)
72
(+,-,-)
89
(+,+,-)
18
4 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
=
+ + +

+ + +
=
y y y y y y y y
E
2. Graphical Approach Example
Assume the Effect values were:
8, 1.5, -0.5, 6, -2, 10, 0.5 Which are significant?
-4.00
-2.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Cumulative Normal Probability Chart
0.01 0.10
0.50
0.90 0.99
-2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
Cumulative Probability (%)
E
f
f
e
c
t

V
a
l
u
e
Chapter 9 - Composites
Primary and secondary phases
Density and elasticity calculations
Components in a Composite Material
Most composite materials consist of two phases:
1. Primary phase - forms the matrix within which the
secondary phase is imbedded
2. Secondary phase - imbedded phase sometimes
referred to as a reinforcing agent, because it
usually strengthens the composite material
The reinforcing phase may be in the form of fibers,
particles, flakes or various other geometries
Composite Calculations
Density of a composite (weighted average):

c
= f
m

m
+ f
r

r

Where are densities and f
m
and f
r
are the
volume fractions of the matrix and reinforcing
phases respectively
Modulus of elasticity:
In the direction of the fibers:
E
c
= f
m
E
m
+ f
r
E
r

Perpendicular to the direction of the fibers:
E
c
= E
m
E
r
/( f
m
E
r
+ f
r
E
m
)
Chapter 16 Powder Metallurgy
Production
Screen mesh separations
Interparticle friction & powder flow
Packing factor
True vs Bulk density
Calculations
Compaction
Application of high
pressure to the powders
to form them into the
required shape
F = A
p
p
c
Where, F = force required
A
p
= press area
p
c
= compaction
pressure of the material
Pressing in PM: (1) filling die cavity with powder by automatic
feeder; (2) initial and (3) final positions of upper and lower
punches during pressing, (4) part ejection.

Chapter 20 Sheet Metal Working
Cutting operations
Punch and die sizes
Bending operations
Drawing
Chapter 33 Mechanical Assembly
No picture identification on Final

Tensile Stress on a Bolt (or Screw?)


where, tensile stress (MPa)
F load (N), maximum load typically proof stress
A
s
tensile stress area (mm
2
)
Metric threads (ISO):
A
s
= (/4)(D 0.9382p)
2
where, D (diameter), p (pitch)
American standard threads (ANSI)
A
s
= (/4)(D 0.9743/n)
2
D (diameter), n (threads / inch)
s
A
F
= o
Threaded Fasteners Preload Torque
Preload: torque applied during assembly
T = C
t
D F = C
t
D A
s

where, T torque (N-mm)
C
t
torque coefficient (typically between 0.15-0.25)
D nominal bolt or screw diameter
F preload tension force (N)
Specified and set either by:
1. Using a torque wrench or setting a torque motor
2. Initially tightening to a low torque level and then
rotating a specified additional amount
Press Fitting
Examples: pin in hole, or collar on shaft, where
starting inside dia of hole < outside dia of pin
Radial or interference fit pressure, p
f
:


where, E modulus of elasticity,
i interference (overlap between ID & OD)
D
c
outside diameter of collar
D
p
pin or shaft diameter
Maximum Joining Stress:

p
D
Ei 2
=
( )
2 2
2
max
2
p c
c f
D D
D p

= o
( )
2
2 2
c p
p c
f
D D
D D Ei
p

=
Shrink and Expansion Fits
Assembly of two parts (e.g., shaft in collar) that
have an interference fit at room temperature
Shrink fitting - external part is enlarged by heating,
and internal part either stays at room temperature or
is contracted by cooling
Expansion fitting - internal part is contracted by
cooling and inserted into mating component - when
at room temperature, expansion creates
interference
Change in diameter:
( )
1 2
T T D D
o
= A o
DFA
Part Symmetry
Nothing else on Final
Chapter 18 & 19 Metal Forming
No picture identification
Calculations
Hot vs warm vs cold forming
Strain rate sensitivity vs temp
Flow Stress
For metals at room temperature, strength
increases when deformed due to strain hardening
Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress
required to continue deforming the material
where Y
f
= flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a
function of strain
n
f
K Y c =
Average Flow Stress
Determined by integrating the flow curve
equation between zero and the final strain
value defining the range of interest



where = average flow stress; and c =
maximum strain during deformation process
( Integral of Figure 18.4 )

n
K
Y
n
f
+
=
1
c
_
_
f
Y
Effect of temperature on flow
stress for a typical metal. The
constant C, as indicated by the
intersection of each plot with the
vertical dashed line at strain rate
= 1.0, decreases, and m (slope
of each plot) increases with
increasing temperature.
Effect of Temperature on Flow Stress
Diagram of Flat Rolling
There is a point on the roll
where the work velocity equals
the roll velocity, this is the no-
slip point. Friction is in opposite
directions on either side of this
point. Forward slip:
where,

Maximum draft:

Roll force:
R d
2
max
=
r
r f
v
v v
s

=
) (
f o f f contact f
t t R w Y wL Y F = =
min / rev N
DN v
r
=
= t
friction of t coefficien =
An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt or
similar hardware item The cycle consists of: (1) wire stock
is fed to the stop, (2) gripping dies close on the stock and
the stop is retracted, (3) punch moves forward, (4)
bottoms to form the head.
Upset Forging
Chapter 30 - Welding
Definitions & processes
Welding calculation