Slide 1

6
Basic Principles of Learning

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 2

Definition of Learning
Relative permanent change in behavior brought about through experience or interactions with the environment
Not all changes result from learning Change in behavior not always immediate

Years of isolating and studying behavior produced different principles of learning

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 3

Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association

Ivan Pavlov in Russia
Nobel Prize for saliva in digestion Reflexive response controlled by arbitrary stimulus (salivation when attendant approached)

Association - key element

First recognized by Aristotle Pavlov: classical conditioning was form of learning through association

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Pavlovs Experiment
Observation screen

Slide 4

Container of meat powder

Revolving drum for recording responses

Device to count drops of saliva

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Tube for collection of saliva

Slide 5

Pavlovs Experiment

A
Before classical conditioning: initially, the metronome is a neutral stimulus that does not elicit the response of salivation

Neutral stimulus (metronome)

CR (salivation)

B
UCR (meat powder)

UCR (salivation)

But the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) can elicit the unconditioned response (UCR)

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Slide 6

Neutral stimulus (metronome)

UCR (meat powder)

UCR (salivation)

Conditioning procedure: during the classical conditioning procedure, the neutral stimulus is presented in association with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit the unconditioned response (UCR)

D
Test of conditioning: after classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits the conditioned response (CR) of salivation

CS (metronome)

CR (salivation)

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 7

Pavlovs Experiments
Systematic, effective, precise studies Association of two stimuli The more frequently the metronome and food are associated, the more often the metronome will elicit salivation Timing of association is highly important
Longer time intervals were less effective; almost no learning occurred
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Pavlovs Studies: the more often the metronome was associated in time with meat powder, the more effective in eliciting saliva

Slide 8

8
7 Number of drops of saliva elicited by metronome alone 6 5

4
3 2 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Number of times metronome and meat powder were presented together

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 9

Terminology of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Elicits response without learning

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unlearned, inborn response

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Acquires ability to elicit after paired association with unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response (CR)

Elicited by conditioned stimulus
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Slide 10

Application of Terminology to Pavlovs Experiment

CS
(meat powder)

CR UCR (Salivation)
(metronome)

UCS

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 11

Definition of Classical Conditioning

Form of learning in which
CS followed by UCS elicits UCR
Pairing of CS and UCS allows CS to elicit CR almost identical or similar to UCR

Considered learning because

New behavior acquired

Old behavior elicited by new stimulus

Does not depend on behavior of individual
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 12

Importance of Classical Conditioning

Watson and Rayner
Made classical conditioning famous with Little Albert experiments Learned to fear rats - unethical today

Watson and Jones

Counterconditioning: reversing the CR

Useful in
Explaining aspects of human health Explaining sexual fetishes and arousals
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Slide 13

Watson and Raynor Study

CS

(rat)

CR UCR

(fear)

UCS (loud noise)

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 14

Operant Conditioning: Learning from the Consequences of Your Behavior

Form of learning
Consequences of behavior lead to change based on probability of consequences occurring

Thorndike and the puzzle box

Researching animal intelligence Law of effect: consequences determine response occurring in future

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 15

Operant Conditioning
Three types of desirable and undesirable consequences that influence behavior
Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement
Punishment

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 16

Positive Reinforcement
Positive consequences behavior occurs more frequently (ie: praise given) Uses in teaching
Hospitalized schizophrenics more normal behaviors Employees within the workplace

Operant response changed behavior becomes more frequent

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Percent of interaction spent with

100 80

Use of Positive Reinforcement Increases Time Spent With Other Children

Slide 17

Adults 60
40 20 0 100

80

Children 60
40 20 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

Days
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 18

Positive Reinforcement
Two important issues
Timing of reinforcer following response Delay of reinforcement the greater the delay between response and reinforcer, the slower the learning Consistency in delivery of reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 19

Reinforcement
Positive reinforcers learned and inborn Primary reinforcement
Innately reinforcing Examples: food, water, warmth, physical activity

Secondary reinforcement
Learned through classical conditioning Examples: rewards, money, praise

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Slide 20

Primary reinforcer

Secondary reinforcer

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 21

Schedules of Positive Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcer for every response Schedules
Fixed ratio reinforcer given after each specified or fixed number of responses Variable ratio reinforcement after varying number of responses

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Slide 22

Patterns of Behavior Produced by Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio

Time

Time

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 23

Schedules of Positive Reinforcement

Schedules
Fixed interval schedule reinforcement based on time (ie: every 2 hours)

Variable interval schedule reinforcement after variable amount of time (ie: reinforced after 1 hour, then after 4 minutes, then after 35 minutes like slot machine gambling)

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Slide 24

Patterns of Behavior Produced by Reinforcement

Fixed Interval Variable Interval

Time

Time

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 25

Shaping
Reinforcing steps toward targeted behavior or method of successive approximations Skinner Skinner box
Rat pushes lever to get food after Rewarded for steps of nearing, touching, and pushing on lever

Used for children and those with developmental handicaps

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Operant Conditioning
Signal lights Lever Pellet dispenser Speaker

Slide 26

To shock generator Dispenser tube Food cup Electric grid

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 27

Negative Reinforcement
Something unpleasant, aversive, undesired is removed by behavior or does not happen at all
Not the same as punishment Not a bad habit being reinforced Very powerful method of reinforcement

Escape conditioning negative event stops

Avoidance conditioning negative event avoided

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 28

Punishment
Consequence of behavior is negative
Behavior has been punished Behavior frequency will decrease When appropriately used ethical and valuable tool for discouraging undesired behavior

Physical punishment used by society, parents, and others

has dangers Raises ethical questions
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 29

Dangers of Punishment
Often reinforcing to the punisher

Often has generalizing effect on the individual

May lead to a worse problem (learning to dislike punisher, reacting aggressively towards others) Criticism trap belief that punishment is ineffective leads to using criticism (criticism sometimes reinforces negative behavior) Punishment may suppress behavior temporarily but is not long term solution
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 30

Guideline for Use of Punishment

Do not use physical punishment Punish inappropriate behavior immediately Positively reinforce appropriate behavior

Clarify what behavior is being punished and why (separate the person from the behavior)
Do not mix punishment with rewards Do not back down once you begin to punish
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 31

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning involves
Association between two stimuli Reflexive, involuntary behaviors UCS making behavior happen

Operant conditioning involves

Association between response and consequence More complicated voluntary behaviors Reinforcing consequence occurring only if desired response is given

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 32

Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization

Stimulus discrimination deciding between appropriate and inappropriate occasions for a response
Learned by humans and animals

Stimulus generalization opposite of stimulus discrimination

Similarity of two or more stimuli

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Stimulus Generalization and Reinforcement of a Pigeons Pecking

300

Slide 33

Mean total responses

200

100

0 460

480

500

520

540

560

580

600

620

640

Wavelength
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 34

Extinction: Learning When to Quit

Extinction
learned response stops occurring because original source of learning was removed

Classical conditioning
Fear is very difficult to extinguish CR extinguished if CS is repeatedly presented but UCS is no longer paired with it

Operant conditioning
Extinction results from change in consequence
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 35

Extinction
Differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning Operant conditioning
Early stage extinction leads to frustration

Partial reinforcement effect: schedule and type of reinforcement greatly influence extinction
Fastest extinction - continuous reinforcement Response prevention: extinguishes avoidance responses quickly
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 36

Spontaneous Recovery and Disinhibition

Course of extinction not smooth learned response occurs often before extinction Spontaneous recovery
Response reappears during extinction

Disinhibition
Presentation of intense, unrelated stimulus can cause strength of response to return Pavlov: no response is unlearned, just inhibited

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 37

Theoretical Interpretations of Learning

Pavlov Neural connections between brain areas of learning and responding acquired Other psychologists
Cognition plays central role in learning Place learning and cognitive map Latent learning Insight learning sudden problem solving Learning set learned to learn insightfully

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Monkeys and Impact of Experience

120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50

Slide 38

Problems
257-312 201-256 101-200 25-32 17-24 9-16 1-8

Trials
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 39

Modeling: Learning by Watching Others

Bandura people learn through modeling
Demonstrates role of cognition in learning Cognitive learning occurs by watching before behavior occurs Learn skills Use of appropriate behavior in given situation Reduce inhibitions Learn what behaviors are reinforced

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 40

Modeling
Powerful form of learning

Vicarious reinforcement likely to imitate reinforced behaviors

Vicarious punishment likely not to imitate behaviors that are punished High status, attractive, likeable, successful models more likely imitated
Concerns about television, movies, other media
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 41

Biological Factors in Learning

Learning influenced several ways
Physical ability limitations (ie: fish cannot fly) Individual differences (ie: fear inhibitions)

Process of evolution useful fears and survival mechanisms Biological preparedness to learn Learned taste aversion ( used on humans and animals)

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 42

6
The End

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved