ANTIDERIVATIVES

Let f(z) be continuous

function in a domain D. If
there exists a function F(z)
such that
F ′( z ) = f ( z ) for all z in D,

then F(z) is called an

antiderivative of f(z) in D.
Remark1: An antiderivative
of a given function f is
an analytic function.

Remark 2: An antiderivative
of a given function f is
unique except for an additive
complex constant.
Theorem: Suppose that a
function f(z) is continuous on
a domain D. If any one of the
following statement is true,
then so are the others:
i. f(z) has an antiderivative
F(z) in D;
ii. the integrals of f(z) along
contours lying entirely in
D and extending from any
fixed point z1 to any fixed
point z2 all have same
value;
iii.the integral of f(z) around
closed contours lying
entirely in D all have value
zero.
Corollary:

Let f(z) is continuous in a

domain D, and F(z) is an
antiderivative of f(z) in D.

⇒ F ′( z ) = f ( z ) for all z in D.
Let z1 and z 2 be any two
points in D, and C is any contour
joining z1 and z 2 , and lying
ENTIRELY in D. Then

∫ f ( z )dz = F ( z2 ) − F ( z1 ).
C
Example:
Use an antiderivative to evaluate
i/2

∫
πz
e dz.
i
πz
Note that f ( z ) = e has an
πz
e
antiderivative F ( z ) = .
π
i/2

∫
πz
e dz = F (i / 2) − F (i )
i

=
1
π
[e πi/2 πi
−e ]
1+ i
=
π
Cauchy - Goursat Theorem:

If a function f is analytic at all points

interior to and on a simple closed
contour C, then

∫
C
f ( z ) dz = 0
Example: If C is any simple
closed contour, in either
direction, then
∫ =
3
exp(
z ) dz 0
C

because the function

f ( z ) = exp( z )
3
is analytic
everywhere.
Defn: A simply connected
domain D is a domain
such that every simple
closed contour within it
encloses only points of D.
The set of points interior to a

simply closed contour is an

example.
A domain that is not
simply connected is said
to be multiply connected
for example, the annular
domain between two
concentric circles.
The Cauchy – Goursat
theorem for a simply
connected domain D is
as follows:
 Theorem: If a function f is
analytic throughout a simply
connected domain D, then
∫ f ( z ) dz = 0
C
for every closed contour C
lying in D.
Result: Let C1 and C2 denote
positively oriented simple
closed contours, where C2 is
interior to C1 .
If a function f is analytic in
the closed region consisting
of those contours and all
points between them, then

∫
C1
f ( z ) d z = ∫
C2
f ( z ) d z
Ex.1 Evaluate
∫ f ( z )dz
C

when f ( z ) = ze ,
−z

C: |z|=1.
Ans: 0 (Why??)
Ex.2 Evaluate
∫ f ( z )dz
C
when
2
z sin z
f ( z) = , C : z = 2.
z−4
Ans: 0 (Why??)
Qs 3/154. Let C0 denote the circle
z − z 0 = R , taken counter clockwise
using the parametric representation
z = z0 + Re iθ
(−π ≤ θ ≤ π )
for C0 to derive the following
integrations:
 dz
(a) ∫ = 2π i
C
z − z 0
0

∫ 0
n −1
(b) ( z − z ) dz = 0, n = ±1,±2,...
C0
a
2iR
(c ) ∫ ( z − z 0 ) a −1
dz = sin ( aπ ) ,
C0
a
where a ≠ 0 is any real no.
Sol. We have z − z 0 = R
iθ
⇒ z − z0 = Re
iθ
⇒ dz = Re . idθ
a)
π iθ
dz Re .idθ
I= ∫ = ∫ iθ
C0
z − z 0 −π
Re
= i( π − ( − π ) ) = 2π i
b)
I = ∫ ( z − z0 ) dz
n −1

C0

π
n −1 i ( n −1 ) θ
= ∫R e i Re dθ
iθ

−π

= 0 (after simplification
c)

I = ∫ ( z − z0 ) dz
a −1

C0

π
a −1 i ( a −1 ) θ
= ∫R e i Re dθ
iθ

−π
a
2i R
= Sin( aπ )
 Exercise:
• Does Cauchy – Goursat
Theorem hold separately for
the real or imaginary part of an
analytic function f(z) ? Justify
your answer.
 Cauchy Integral Formula
Let f be analytic everywhere
inside and on a simple closed
contour C, taken in the positive
sence, then
1 f ( z )dz
f ( z0 ) = ∫
2πi C z − z0
.
 Derivative Formula

Suppose that a function f is analytic

everywhere inside and on a simple
closed contour C, taken in the positive
sence. If z0 is any point interior to
C, then
 1 f ( z )dz
a) f ′( z 0 ) = ∫
2π i C ( z − z0 ) 2
,

(2)! f ( z )dz
b) f ′′( z0 ) = ∫
2π i C ( z − z0 ) 3
,
c)
( n )! f ( z ) dz
∫
(n)
f ( z0 ) = n+1
.
2π i C ( z − z0 )
Theorem:

If f(z) is analytic at z0, then its

derivatives of all orders exist at
z0 and are themselves analytic

at z0.
Qs.1(a)/163: Let C denote the
positively oriented boundary of the
square whose sides lie along the
lines x = ±2 and y = ±2 . Evaluate
cos z dz
∫ 2
the following integral C z ( z + 8)
.

Ans : πi/4.
Qs. 2(b)/163: Find the value
of the integral of g(z) around
the circle z − i = 2 in the
positive sense when
1
g( z) =
(z 2
+4 .) 2
 dz dz
Sol : ∫ =∫
C ( z + 4)
2 2
C ( z + 2i )2
( z − 2i ) 2

d 1 
= 2π i  
2
dz  ( z + 2i )  z = 2i
π
=
16
Qs.4/163: Let C be any simple
closed contour, described the
positive sense in the z- plane and
write
z + 2z
3
g ( w) = ∫ dz
C ( z − w ) 3
Show that

g ( w) = 6πiw
when w is inside C and that

g ( w) = 0
when w is outside C.
Case I : Let w is inside C.
3
Let f ( z ) = z + 2 z. Then
f ( z)
g ( w) = ∫ dz ,
C ( z − w ) 3

2π i
= f ′′( w)
2
f ( z) = z + 2z
3

⇒ f ′( z ) = 3 z + z
2

⇒ f ′′( z ) = 6 z
⇒ f ′′( w) = 6 w
 ∴ I = g ( w) = 6πiw
Case 2. When w is outside C,
then by Cauchy Goursat
Theorem g ( w ) = 0 .
Qs. 5/163: Show that if f is
analytic within and on a simple
closed contour C and z0 is not on
C, then
f ′( z ) f ( z)
∫C ( z − z0 ) C∫ ( z − z0 ) 2
dz = dz
Sol. Let
f ′( z )
I1 = ∫ dz and
C
( z − z 0 )
f ( z)
I2 = ∫ dz
C ( z − z0 ) 2
Case I: Let z0 is inside C,
then
f ′( z )
I1 = ∫ dz = 2π i f ′( z ) z = z
C
( z − z 0 ) 0

= 2π i f ′( z0 )
and
f ( z)
I2 = ∫ dz
C ( z − z 0 ) 2

= 2π i f ′( z0 )

∴ I1 = I 2 .
Case II: Let z0 is outside C

Then I1 = I2 = 0.

(WHY ???)
 Morera’s Theorem:
If a function f(z) is continuous
throughout in a domain D and if

∫ f(z)dz = 0,
C
for every closed contour C lying
in D, then f(z) is analytic in D.
LIOUVILLE’S THEOREM

If f is entire and bounded in

the complex plane, then f(z)
is constant throughout the
plane.
 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Any polynomial
2 n
P ( z ) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z + ... + an z
(an ≠ 0) of degree n(n ≥ 1) has
at least one zero. That is there
exist at least on point z 0 such that
P(z 0 ) = 0.
Theorem: Suppose that
• C is a simple closed contour,
described in the counter-
clockwise direction,

• Ck (k = 1, 2, …., n) are finite no.

of simple closed contours, all
described in the clockwise
direction, which are interior to C
and whose interiors are disjoint.
If f(z) is analytic throughout the
closed region consisting of all
points within and on C except
for the points interior to C k , then
n

∫ f(z)dz + ∑ ∫ f(z)dz = 0 .
C k =1 Ck
 dz
Ex. Evaluate ∫ z ( z 2 + 1)
for all
C

possible choices of the

contour C that does not pass
through any of the points 0,
± i.
Solution:

Case 1. Let C does not enclose 0,

± i.

Then

dz
I=∫ 2 = 0 by CG Theorem.
C z +1
Case 2a. Let C encloses only
0.
Then I = ∫ dz
C z ( z + 1)
2

f ( z )dz 1
=∫ , f ( z) = 2
C z−0 ( z + 1)
= 2πi f (0)
= 2πi
Exercise:

Case 2b. Let C encloses only i.

Ans: I = -πi

Case 2c. Let C encloses only -i.

Ans: I = -πi
Case 3 a). Let C encloses
only 0, -i.
then
dz dz
I= ∫ + ∫
C
z ( z + i )( z − i ) C
z ( z + i )( z − i )
0 −i

where C0 and C-i are

sufficiently small circles
around 0 and –i resp.
 1
( z + i )( z − i )
= ∫ dz
C 0
z
1
z ( z − i)
+ ∫ dz
C ( z + i)
−i

 1  1 
= ( 2πi ) − 2  + (2πi ) 
 i   − i ( −2i ) 
= πi
Case 3 b). Let C encloses
only 0, i.
then
dz dz
I=∫ +∫
C
z ( z + i )( z − i ) C
z ( z + i )( z − i )
0 i

where C0 and Ci are

sufficiently small circles
around 0 and i resp.
 1
( z + i )( z − i )
I=∫ dz
C 0
z
1
z ( z + i)
+∫ dz
C ( z − i)
i

 1 
= 2πi + ( 2πi )  
 i.2i 
= πi
Case 3 c). Let C encloses only -i, +i.
Then
1
z ( z + i)
I =∫ dz
C i
z −i
1
z ( z −i)
+ ∫ dz
C ( z + i)
−i

 1   1 
= ( 2πi )   + ( 2πi ) 
 i.2i   − i. − 2i 
= −2πi
Case 3 d). Let C encloses all of
the points 0, -i, +i.
Then
1 1
2
z + 1 dz + z ( z + i)
I = ∫ z ∫ z −i
dz
C0 C i
1
z ( z − i)
+ ∫ ( z + i)
dz
C− i

= 2πi − πi − πi
=0
 1 1
z + 1 dz + z ( z + i ) dz
2
I = ∫ z ∫ z − i
C0 C i
1
z ( z − i)
+ ∫ ( z + i)
dz
C− i

= 2πi − πi − πi
=0