BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

BLOOD Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of fluid matrix , plasma ,and formed elements. PLASMA Plasma constitute 55% of blood. 90 to 95% of plasma is water. 6 to 8 % of plasma is proteins. Fibrinogen , globulins and albumins are the major plasma proteins. Fibrinogen helps in clotting or coagulation of blood Globulins help in defense mechanism. Albumins help in osmotic balance. Plasma also contains small amounts of minerals like Na+ , Ca++, Mg++ ,HCO3 , Cl etc. Factors of coagulation are present in an inactive

FORMED ELEMENTS OF THE BLOOD

Formed elements include erythrocytes ,leucocytes , and platelets. These constitute 45% of the blood.

ERYTHROCYTES These are red blood cells (RBC). A healthy adult man has 5 millions to 5.5 millions of RBC in cubic milli meter of blood. In adults RBC are formed in red bone marrow. RBC of mammals are non nucleated and biconcave in shape. Haemoglobin is the red coloured iron containing pigment in the RBC. A healthy individual has 12-16 gms of haemoglobin in 100 ml of blood. RBCs has an average of life span of 120 days. RBCs are destroyed in spleen (graveyard of RBCs)

LEUCOCYTES
These are white blood cells (WBC) These are nucleated cells Average number is 6000- 8000 in mm3 of blood.

 lymphocyte

basophil

eosinophil

Monocyte

neutrophil

 Two types of WBCs are present 1.Granulocyte 3 types of granulocytes are there 1.Neutrophils - most abundant RBC.(60-65%), 2.Eosinophils - 2-3% - resist infection involve in
allergic reactions ,phagocytic

least abundant RBC (0.5 -1%) .Involve in inflammatory reactions, secrete histamine ,sreotonin , heparin etc

3. Basophils -

2.Agranulocytes
2 types of agranulocytes are there.

1. Monocytes - phagocytic 2. Lymphocytes - (20-25%) ,responsible for immune

response of the body . B and T lymphocytes are present

PATELETS These are called thrombocytes . Produced from special type of cell in the bone marrow known as megakaryocytes Normal count is 1,500,00 to 3,500,00 in mm3 Main function is blood clotting

Diagrammatic representation of formed elements of blood Blood

plasma

formed elements
blood corpuscles RBC WBC agranulocyte platelets

granulocyte

Neutrophil basophil eosinophil lymphocytes monocyte

BLOOD GROUPS
Two types of blood grouping is widely used. They are ABO type and Rh type . ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigen A and B on the RBC and the antibodies present in the plasma. A group has antigen A and antibody B B group has antigen B and antibody A AB group has antigen A and B but no antibody O group has antibody A and B but no antigen

BLOOD GROUPS AND DONOR COMPATIBILITY

During blood transfusion inorder to avoid clotting donors blood is matched with recipients blood Antibody A reacts with antigen A and in the same way antibody B reacts with antigen B leading to the destruction of RBCs . A group persons can donate blood to A and O. B group persons can donate blood to B and O AB group persons can donate blood to AB , A , B and O O group persons can donate blood only to O group The plasma of AB group persons has no antibodies . So they can accept blood from any groups .Hence they are called Universal Recipients . The RBC of O group persons has no antigen . So they can donate blood to any group .Hence they are called Universal Donors.

Rh GROUPING

Surface of RBC contains another antigen known as Rh antigen. Rh antigen is first observed in Rhesus monkey , hence the name. Persons with Rh antigen is Rh positive and without Rh antigen is Rh negative. If an Rh negative person receives blood from Rh positive one, his blood will develop antibody against Rh antigen.

Rhesus monkey

ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FOETALIS
This is an Rh incompatibility disease. This can be seen in Rh positive foetus which is developing in the uterus of Rh negative lady who became pregnant in the second time. During the delivery of first child mixing of maternal and foetal blood occurs . Then the mother begins to produce antibodies against Rh antigen in her blood This Rh antigen enters in to the foetus if the lady conceives the second child and destroy the foetal RBC . This can be avoided by injecting anti Rh antibodies to the mother immeadiately after the first child

COAGULATION OF BLOOD
Blood exhibits clotting or coagulation in response to an injury inorder to prevent excessive loss of blood from the body. Clotting involves the conversion of soluble plasma protein fibrinogen into an insoluble form called fibrin. This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme thrombin. Thrombin is found in the blood in an inactive form called prothrombin The enzyme complex thrombokinase convert prothrombin to thrombin through a series of reactions. Thromboplastin released from platelets and damaged tissues initiates the formation of thrombokinase Ca2+ ions are essential for the activation and action of thrombin.

Blood coagulation
Prothrombin Ca 2+ Thrombokinase enzyme complex

Fibrinogen

Thrombin

fibrin (clot)

LYMPH (TISSUE FLUID)

When blood flows under high pressure through the capillaries, water and other dissolved substances are filtered out from the blood plasma to the intercellular space . This fluid is known as lymph. Lymph has the same mineral distribution as that in plasma but it is devoid of RBC ,platelets and some proteins. Exchange of nutrients , gases ,etc between the blood and the cells always occur through lymph. Lymph contains specialized lymphocytes which are responsible for immune response. Lymph is an important carrier for nutrients , hormones etc. Fats are absorbed through lymph in the lacteals present in the intestinal villi . Lymph vessels collect lymph and drains it to major veins

TYPES OF CIRCULATION
1.Open Circulatory System
Blood from heart passes through large vessels into open spaces or body cavities called sinuses

Eg . arthropods and molluscs 2. Closed circulatory system

Blood pumped from the heart always circulate througfh a closed network of blood vessels.

Eg . annelids and chordates

Animal groups and number of heart chambers

1 . Fishes 2 chambers ( atrium and a ventricle )

2. Amphibians and reptiles (except crocodiles) 3 chambers (2 atria and a ventricle) 3. Crocodiles , birds and mammals - 4 chambers (2
atria and 2 ventricle)

 Single circulation
In fishes deoxygenated blood from tissues reaches the heart and from there pumped to the gills for oxygenation . From the gills oxygenated blood enters the tissues directly.This circulation is single circulation.

Incomplete Double circulation

In amphibians and reptiles , the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the gills/ lungs/skin . Right atrium receives the deoxygenated blood from the body parts . Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mixes in the ventricle and ventricle pumps this mixed blood .So this circulation is known

Complete double circulation

In birds and mammals oxygenated blood is received in the left atria and from there enters into the left ventricle . Deoxygenated blood from all body parts enters into the right atria and and from there enters into the right ventricle. The ventricles pump the blood without any mixing up .Thus two complete circulatory pathways are there and known as complete double circulation.

HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Consists of a muscular heart , a network of closed branching blood vessels and blood. HEART Mesodermal in orgin Situated in the thoracic cavity , in between the lungs. It has the size of a clenched fist The double walled membrane which protect the heart is pericardium Pericardium has a fluid in it known as pericardial fluid Heart has four chambers .Upper small chambers are atria and lower large chambers are ventricles

 Inter atrial septum separate the two atrias. Inter ventricular septum separate the two ventricles. Atrio ventricular septum separate the atria and
ventricles

The opening of atria to the ventricle is guarded by valves Tricuspid valve guard the opening of right atrium and right
ventricle

Bicuspid or mitral valve guard the opening of left atrium

and left ventricle.

Semilunar valves guard the openings of pulmonary artery

and aorta

These valves allow the blood to flow in only one direction The muscles of the heart is

 Sino atrial node (SA Node)

This is a special type of muscle tissue present in the right upper corner of the right atrium which initiates and maintain the rhythmic contractile activity of the heart. SAN can generate the maximum number of action potentials ie . 70-75 /min

Atrio Ventricular Node (AV Node)

The mass of nodal muscle tissue seen in the lower left corner of the right atrium close to the atrio ventricular septum is atrio ventricular node

Bundle of His
The bundle of nodal fibers arising from the AV Node is Bundle of His.

 Purkinje fibers
Bundle of His branches again and the branches give rise to minute fibers throughout the ventricles

Flow chart of the path of cardiac impulse SA node AV node Bundle of His Purkinje fibers ventricles

CARDIAC CYCLE
Contraction of the heart chambers is systole Relaxation of the heart chambers is diastole The contraction and subsequent relaxation of the chambers of the heart constitute a heart beat . The sequential event in the heart which is cyclically repeated is called the cardiac cycle and it constitute atrial and ventricular systole, and diastole. The heart beats 72 times/mt. So the duration of cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds

Atrial systole All the 4 chambers are in the relaxed state. Tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open . Blood from the pulmonary veins and venacava flows into the left and right ventricles through the right and left atria. Ventricular systole The contraction of the ventricles is ventricular systole. It begins when the ventricles are full of blood . When the ventricles begin to contract , the tricuspid and bicuspid valves close and the deoxygenated blood is forced to enter the pulmonary artey and oxygenated blood enter the aorta opening the semilunar

Diastole
The relaxation of heart chambers after contraction is diastole The atria and ventricles relax simultaneously . So it is known as joint diastole During atrial diastole right atrium is filled with deoxygenated blood and left atrium is filled with oxygenated blood from the lungs Stroke volume During a cardiac cycle , each ventricle pumps out approximately 70 ml of blood which is called stroke volume

Cardiac output
The volume of blood pumped out from each ventricle per minute is called cardiac output. The stroke volume multiplied by the number of beats per minute gives the cardiac output. The cardiac out put of a healthy individual is 5000 ml or 5 liters

Sounds of heart
During each cardiac cycle two prominent sounds are produced which can be heard using a stethoscope. The first heart sound is lub , which is associated with the closure of the tricuspid and bicuspid valves The second sound is dub, which is associated with the closure of the semilunar valves.

Electrocardiograph(ECG
The machine used to record the electrical activity of the heart during cardiac cycle is called electrocardiograph. The graph obtained from the machine is electrocardiogram The ECG has 3 peaks- P , QRS and T . The P-wave represents the electrical excitation or depolarization of the atria. The QRS complex represents the depolarization of the ventricles The T wave represents the return of the ventricles from excited to normal state(repolarisation). The end of the T- wave marks the end of the systole The deviation from the standard shape indicates abnormality or disease. Hence it has great significance

Electrocardiogram

Double circulation
Human heart is a double pump. Each side pumps blood to two different system known as double circulation It involves pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation

Pulmonary circulation
The circulation between the heart and lungs is called pulmonary circulation The deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle is pumped into the pulmonary artery and carried to the lungs. Oxygenated blood from lungs is carried to the left atrium by pulmonary veins .This type of heart to lung circulation is called pulmonary circulation

Systemic circulation
The circulation between heart and various body parts is called systemic circulation In this circulation oxygenated blood from the left ventricle is pumped into the aorta The arteries from the aorta supply blood to all parts of the body . The deoxygenated blood from the tissues is returned to the right atrium by superior and inferior venacave Systemic circulation provides nutrients , oxygen and other essential substances to the tissues and takes CO2 and other harmful substances away for elimination.

 Hepatic portal system The vascular connection between the digestive tract and liver is called hepatic portal system. The hepatic portal vein carries food laden blood from the alimentary canal to the liver before it is delivered to systemic circulation. Coronary circulation The circulation of blood between heart chambers and heart walls is known as coronary circulation

Hepatic portal system

Coronary circulation

Regulation of cardiac activity

Human heart is myogenic , ie auto regulated by specialized nodal muscle tissue . Medulla oblongata moderate the cardiac function through autonomic nervous system Neural signals from sympathetic nerves increase the rate of heart beat and cardiac output . Parasympathetic neural signals decrease heart beat and cardiac output Hormones from adrenal medulla increase the cardiac out put

Disorders of circulatory system

High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) Normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm of Hg 120 mm of Hg is the systolic pressure and 80 mm of Hg is the diastolic pressure If the blood pressure rises to 140 / 90 , that condition is known as hypertension Hypertension leads to heart diseases , damage to brain and kidney.

Atherosclerosis (coronary artery disease

It is an arterial disease due to the deposition of calcium , fat , cholesterol and fibrous tissues on the inner lining of the large and medium sized arteries ,which make the arteries narrower

Angina ( angina pectoris)

A symptom of acute chest pain due to the deficiency of oxygen to the heart muscles It is more common in middle aged and elderly It occurs due to the block of blood flow. It may lead to heart attack. Heart failure This is a condition in which the heart is not pumping enough blood to meet the needs of the body