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Kv Ki
Line & 158 0.341
Neutral CT
Earth CT 236 0.275
Restricted Earth Fault Protection
Example 1
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(3) Effective setting I
P
= CT ratio x (I
S
+ I
MAG
)
Line & Neutral CTs
Flux density at 93.6V = 93.6/158 = 0.592 Tesla
From graph, mag. Force at 0.592 Tesla = 0.015 AT/mm
Mag. Current = 0.015 x 0.341 = 0.0051 Amps
Earth CT
Flux density at 93.6V = 93.6/236 = 0.396 Tesla
From graph, mag. Force at 0.396 Tesla = 0.012 AT/mm
Mag. Current = 0.012 x 0.275 = 0.0033 Amps
Thus, effective setting = 1600 x (0.1 + [(4 x 0.0051) + 0.0033])
= 197. 92A
Restricted Earth Fault Protection
Example 1
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Transformer full load current = 1391 Amps
Effective setting = (198/1391) x 100% = 14.2% x rated
4) Peak voltage = 2\2\[V
K
(V
F
- V
K
)]
V
F
= 14.9 x V
S
/I
S
= 14.9 x 936 = 13946 Volts
For Earth CT, V
K
= 1.4 x 236 = 330 Volts (from graph)
V
P
= 2\2 \[330 (13946 - 330)]
= 6kV
Thus, non-linear resistor is to be used.
Restricted Earth Fault Protection
Example 1
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A N
T1
Bus Section
T2
415 Volt
Switchboard
C B
Restricted Earth Fault Protection
Parallel Transformer
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Parallel Transformer
CT in Earth Circuit
A N
T1
Bus Section
Open
T2
415 Volt
Switchboard
C B
51N
51N
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Parallel Transformer
CT in Earth & Neutral Circuits
Bus section open
415 volt switchboard
51N
T2
T1 N A B C
51N
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Bus section
415 volt switchboard
T1 N A B C
F2
F1
Will mal-operate if bus section is open
for fault at F1
No mal-operation for fault at F2 (but setting must be
greater than load neutral current)
T2
Parallel Transformer
Residual CT Connection
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Biased
Differential Protection
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Phase differential protection may be justified for larger
transformers (generally > 5MVA).
Provides fast operation on any winding
Measuring principle :
Based on the same circulating current principle as the restricted
earth fault protection
However, it employs the biasing technique, to maintain stability
for heavy through fault current
Biasing allows mismatch between CT outputs.
Biasing is essential for transformers with tap changing facility.
Another important requirement of transformer differential
protection is immunity to magnetising in rush current.
Differential Protection
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BIAS BIAS
I
2
I
1
OPERATE
I
1
- I
2
Differential
Current
OPERATE
RESTRAIN
Mean Thro Current
(I
1
+I
2
)/
2
I
1
- I
2
Bias = Differential current / Mean through current
Biased Differential Protection
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LV
R
HV
PROTECTED ZONE
Correct application of differential protection requires CT ratio and winding
connections to match those of transformer.
CT secondary circuit should be a replica of primary system.
Account for;
Difference in current magnitude
Phase shift
Zero sequence currents
Biased Differential Protection
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P1 P2 A2 A1 a1 a2 P2 P1
A B C
Differential Protection
CT Connections
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Interposing CT provides
Vector correction
Ratio correction
Zero sequence
compensation
R
R
R
P1 P2 A2 A1 a1 a2 P2 P1
S2 S1 P1 P2
S1 S2
S1 S2
Differential Protection
Interposing CT Connections
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S2 S1
P1 P2
A1 A2 a2 a1
P2
15MVA
66kV / 11kV
150/5
800/5
P1
Dy1
S1 S2
For the application shown above, consider
(1) Winding full load current
(2) Effect of tap changer (if any)
(3) C.T. polarities
Differential Protection
Example 2
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S2 S1
P1 P2
A1 A2 a2 a1
P2
15MVA
66kV / 11kV
150/5
800/5
P1
Dy1
S1 S2
Assuming no tap changer
Full load currents :- 66kV : 131 Amp = 4.37 A (sec.)
11kV : 787 Amp = 4.92 A (sec.)
However, require 11kV C.T.s to be connected in A
Thus, secondary current = \3 x 4.92 = 8.52A
RATIO CORRECTION IS REQUIRED
Differential Protection
Example 2
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Differential Protection
Example 2
150/5 800/5
?? ??
?? ??
R
R
R
P1 P2 A2 A1 a1 a2 P2 P1
S2 S1 P1 P2
S1 S2
S1 S2
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It is a normal practice to connect 11kV C.T.s in Star
and utilise a Star/Delta interposing C.T. (this
method reduces lead VA burden on the line C.T.s).
Current from 66kV side = 4.37 A
Thus, current required from Delta winding of ICT =
4.37A
Current input to Star winding of ICT = 4.92 A
Required ICT ratio = 4.92 / (4.37 /\3) = 4.92 /
2.52
Can also be expressed as 5 / 2.56
Differential Protection
Example 2
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Differential Protection
Example 2
150/5 800/5
4.37A 4.92A
(5) (2.56)
R
R
R
P1 P2 A2 A1 a1 a2 P2 P1
S2 S1 P1 P2
S1 S2
S1 S2
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Assume 66kV +5%, -15%
Interposing C.T. ratio should be based on mid tap
position
Mid Tap (-5%) = 62.7 kV
Primary current (@15 MVA) = 138 Amp
Secondary current = 4.6 Amp
Interposing C.T. ratio required = 4.92 / (4.6/ \3)
= 4.92 / 2.66
May also be expressed as : 5 / 2.7
As compared with 5 / 2.56 based on nominal voltage
Differential Protection
Example 2 Effect of Tap Changer
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R
R
R
P1 P2 A2 A1 a1 a2 P2 P1
S2 S1 P1 P2
S1 S2 S1 S2
Differential Protection
Example 2 Vector Group
Current distribution verification
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R
R
R
P1 P2 A2 A1 a1 a2 P2 P1
S2 S1 P1 P2
S1 S2 S1 S2
Differential Protection
Example 2 Vector Group
Current distribution verification
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R
R
R
P1 P2 A2 A1 a1 a2 P2 P1
S2 S1 P1 P2
S1 S2 S1 S2
Differential Protection
Example 2 Vector Group
Current distribution verification
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R
R
R
P1 P2 A2 A1 a1 a2 P2 P1
S2 S1 P1 P2
S1 S2 S1 S2
Differential Protection
Example 2 Vector Group
Current distribution verification
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To differential relay
S2
S1
P1
P2
REF
S2
S1
P1
P2
S2 S1
P1 P2
a2 a1
A1 A2
Combined REF and
Differential Protection
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Power transformer
Differential
element
Virtual ICT
Vector
correction
Ratio
correction
Virtual ICT
Virtual ICT in
Numerical Relays
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Stability for
Inrush Currents
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Twice
Normal
Flux
Normal
Flux
Normal
No Load
Current
No Load
Current at
Twice Normal
Flux
Transformer Magnetizing
Characteristics
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Steady State
+ u
m
- u
m
u
V
I
m
Transformer Magnetizing Current
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Switch on at voltage zero - No residual flux
u
2u
m
V
I
m
Magnetizing Inrush Current
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Appears on one side of transformer only
Seen as fault by differential relay
Normal steady state magnetising current is
less than relay setting
Transient magnetising inrush could cause relay
to operate
Effect of magnetising current
Effect of Inrush Current on
Differential Protection
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Allow magnetising current to die away before
relay can operate
Slows operation for genuine transformer
faults
Solution 1 : Time delay
Effect of Inrush Current on
Differential Protection
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Solution 2 : 2nd (and 5th) harmonic restraint
Makes relay immune to magnetising inrush
Slow operation may result for genuine
transformer faults if CT saturation occurs
Effect of Inrush Current on
Differential Protection
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Inhibits relay operation during magnetising inrush
Operate speed for genuine transformer faults
unaffected by significant CT saturation
Solution 3 : Gap measurement technique
Effect of Inrush Current on
Differential Protection
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Typical Magnetising Inrush Waveforms
A
C
B
Gap Measurement Technique
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Differential
comparator
T1 = 5ms T2 = 22ms
Trip
Bias
Differential
Threshold
Gap Measurement Technique
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Bias
differential
threshold
Trip
Differential
comparator
T1 = 5ms
T2 = 22ms
Differential input
Comparator output
Trip
Reset
T2
T1
Gap Measurement Technique
Stability for Inrush Current
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Differential input
Comparator output
Trip
Reset
T2
T1
Gap Measurement Technique
Operation for Internal Faults
Trip
Differential
comparator
T1 = 5ms
T2 = 22ms
Bias
differential
threshold
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Auto Transformer
Protection
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(a) Earth Fault Scheme
A
B
C
High impedance
relay
87
Auto Transformer Protection
High Impedance Differential
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(b) Phase and Earth Fault Scheme
A
B
C
a
b
c
87 87 87
n
Auto Transformer Protection
High Impedance Differential
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Inter-turn Fault
Protection
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Nominal turns ratio
Fault turns ratio
Current ratio
- 11,000 / 240
- 11,000 / 1
- 1 / 11,000
Requires Buchholz relay
CT
E
Shorted
turn
Load
Inter-turn Fault
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Inter-turn fault current Vs number of turns shorted
100
80
60
40
20
0
5 10 15 20 25
10
8
6
4
2
Fault current in short
circuited turns
Primary input current
Fault current
(multiples of
rated current)
Primary current
(multiples of
rated current)
Turns short-circuited (% of winding)
Inter-turn Fault
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5 x internal pipe
diameter (minimum)
3 x internal pipe
diameter (minimum)
Transformer
3 minimum
Oil conservator
Conservator
Buchholz Relay Installation
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Petcock
Counter balance
weight
Oil level
From transformer
Aperture adjuster
Deflector plate
Drain plug
Trip bucket
To oil
conservator
Mercury switch
Alarm bucket
Buchholz Relay
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Over Flux
Protection
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Generator transformers and grid transformers
Usually only a problem during run-up or shut down,
but can be caused by loss of load / load shedding
etc.
Flux V/ f
Effects of over fluxing, increase in,
Magnetizing current
Winding temperature
Noise and vibration
Overheating of laminations and metal parts (caused
by stray flux)
Over Fluxing in Transformers
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Low frequency
High voltage
Geomagnetic disturbances
Tripping of differential element (Transient over fluxing)
Damage to transformers (Prolonged over fluxing)
2u
m
I
m
Causes
Effects
V = k f u
Over Fluxing in Transformers
Theory
u
m
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Blocks differential element for transient over
fluxing
25% Overvoltage condition
43% 5th Harmonic content
5
th
Harmonic Restraint
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Protective relay responds to V/f ratio
Measured from voltage input
Two stage protection
Stage 1 - lower A.V.R. or alarm
Stage 2 - Trip field or transformer
Definite time of Inverse time
Over Flux Protection
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Trip and alarm outputs for clearing prolonged over fluxing
Alarm : Definite time characteristic to initiate corrective action
Trip : IDMT or DT characteristic to clear over-fluxing condition
Settings
Pick-up 1.5 to 3.0 i.e. 110V x 1.05 = 2.31
50Hz
DT setting range 0.1 to 60 seconds
Over Flux Protection
V/f = k u
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DC
Circuit breaker
position repeat relay
AUX relay
Lower AVR
Inhibit AVR
raise
Alarm
Generator field circuit
breaker trip coil
RL2-2
Alarm
RL2-1
RL1-1
DC
Over Flux Protection
Application
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Over Load
Protection
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90 100 110 120 130 140
Hot spot temp C
0.1
1.0
10
100
Relative
rate
of using
life
With ambient of 20C, hot
spot rise of 78 is design
normal.
A further rise of 6 C doubles
rate of using life.
98
80
Transformer Overload and
Life of Insulation
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I
load
TD
setting
Top oil of
power
transformer
Heater
Thermal
replica
Temperature
sensing resistor
Remote
Temp. indication
Local
Off
On
Off
On
Alarm
Trip
Pump
control
Fan
control
I
load
Over Heating Protection
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Thermal replica for 1 or 3 protection.
Adjustable time constant : 5 mins. to 160 mins.
Current settings :
Thermal : 0.4 IN to 1.175 IN
Instantaneous : 2 IN to 25 IN
Thermal state indication
Separately adjustable trip and alarm settings
Thermal Over Load Protection
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Thank you