Tools of Research

In this section you will learn about different tools used for data collection: i.e. questionnaires, interviews, observations.

Interview.
A less technical tool for the collection of data in the form of formal conversation.
o

Can be used in survey researches. Can be structured and unstructured Can be One to One: meeting between one researcher and one respondent.

Group interview: meeting between one researcher and more than one respondents.

Interview.
o o o

Can be Face-to-Face Interview Can be Telephone Interview Can be Computer Assisted Interview

Unstructured Interview
Interviews in which neither the question nor the answer are predetermined and rely on social interaction between the researcher and Respondent to bring out information. (Minichiello 1990)

Unstructured Interview (cont)

Objective of UI is to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what variables need further indepth investigation.

Unstructured Interview (cont)

In several situations where the manager might consider a vague idea of certain changes taking place in the situation without knowing what exactly they are. Such situations call for unstructured interviews with the people concerned. To understand situation in its totality, the researcher will interview employees at several levels.

Unstructured Interview (cont)

Levels of Interview

Top and middle level managers might be asked more direct questions about their perception about the problem and situation. Clerical and other employees at lower hierarchical levels may be asked broad, open ended questions about their jobs, and the work environment. Supervisors may be asked broad questions relating to their department , employees under their supervision, and the organization.

Unstructured Interview (cont)

Examples;
Tell me something about your unit and department, and perhaps even the organization as a whole in terms of work, employees, and whatever else you think is Important Some respondents give crisp and short reply that is not informative. Then interviewer might phrased questions such as: I would like to know something about your job, Please describe to me in details the things you do on a typical day, from eight in the morning to four in the afternoon.

Unstructured Interview (cont)

Examples;
Several questions then might be asked as a follow up to the answer e.g., Compared to other units in this organization, what are the strengths and weakness of your unit? If you would like to have a problem solved in your unit that block your effectiveness, what would that be?

Unstructured Interview (cont)

Encouraging the respondent to talk about both the good things and those not so good in the unit can bring out a lot of information. Some respondents may show reluctance to be interviewed, the wish of such people must be respected and the interviewer should pleasantly terminate such interview.

Unstructured Interview (cont)

Interview at non-managerial, non-supervisory level employees might include very broad questions; like:

Tell me something about the reward system in this place. If you were offered a similar job elsewhere, how willing you be to take it and why? What you like more and what you do not like in your job?

Unstructured Interview (cont)

After conducting a sufficient number of unstructured interviews with employees at several levels and studying the data obtained, the researcher would know the variables that need greater focus and call for more in-depth information. This sets the stage for interviewer to conduct

further Structured

Interviews, for which the

variables would have been identified.

Structured Interview
These interviews are conducted when it is known at the outset what information is needed.
Questions are likely to focus on factors that had surfaced during the unstructured interviews and are considered relevant to the problem.

Structured Interview (Cont)

Interviewer adheres to a strict script. Interviewer has list of predetermined questions to be asked of respondents either personally, through the telephone, or PC. Interviewers can be less experienced or knowledgeable. Easier to compare or analyze data

Structured Interview (Cont)

Visual aids.
Visual aids like line drawings, cards, pictures and other material also sometimes come in handy while seeking to bring out certain thoughts and ideas that are difficult to express or awkward to articulated.

Structured Interview (Cont)

When sufficient number of structured interviews has been conducted and adequate information obtained to understand and describe the important factors operating in the situation, the researcher would stop the interviews. The information would then be tabulated and the data analyzed.

Questioning Technique for Structured Interview.

1. Funneling.
In the beginning of SI, it is advisable to ask openended questions to get a broad idea and form some impressions about the situation. What are some of your feelings about working for this organization?
From the responses to this broad question, further questions that are progressively more focused may be asked.

Questioning Technique for Structured Interview.

2. Unbiased Questions.
It is important to ask questions in a way that would ensure the least bias in the response. For example, Tell me how you experience your job is better question than, The work you done must be really boring; let me hear how you experience it.

Questioning Technique for Structured Interview.

3. Clarifying Issues.
It is advisable to restate or rephrase important information given by the respondent.
For instance, if the interviewee says There is an unfair promotion policy in this organization; seniority does not count at all. It is juniors who always get promoted,.

The researcher might interject, So you are saying that juniors always get promoted over the heads of even capable seniors

Questioning Technique for Structured Interview.

4. Taking Notes.
When conducting interviews, it is important that the researcher makes written notes as the interviews are taking place, or as soon as the interview terminated.
Interview can be recorded on tape if the respondent has no objection.

5. Helping the respondent to think through issues.

Observation

Observation.
o

It is the recording of the behavior of the sample. It relies on what the researcher has witnessed not on what people say or think about issues.

Observation
Involves all 5 senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste

Purpose and Benefits of Observation as Data Collection Method

It is unobtrusive

You can see things in their natural context

You can see things that may escape conscious awareness, things that are not seen by others

You can discover things no else has ever really paid attention to, things that are taken for granted
You can learn about things people may be unwilling to talk about You can be totally creative flexibility to yield insight into new realities or new ways of looking at old realities

Observation is useful when

You want direct information

You are trying to understand an ongoing behavior, process, unfolding situation, or event.
There is physical evidence, products, or outcomes that can be readily seen. Written or other data collection methods seem inappropriate

Observation types.
Participative Observation When you as researcher become the part of some social set-up and people know that they are being observed. Non-participative Observation (Systematic) When you dont interfere the social set-up, or do not disturb natural settings of the sample to be observed.

Participative Observation

Non-Participative Observation

Behavior of sample can be affected.

Sometimes it becomes difficult for the researcher to find out the reason for some specific behavior.
Use in-direct observation Researcher is supposed not to disturb the settings or interact with people.

Use direct observation

Requires to achieve the confidence of respondents to be observed.

Who/What can you observe

People

(individuals, groups, communities) Characteristics Interactions Behaviors Reactions settings

Physical

Environmental

features
artifacts

Products/physical

Recording Your Observations

It is not good enough to just observe, you need to record your observations. You might use: Observation guide Observation Checklist Field note Picture Combination of the above

Observational Checklist
following categories:

can be based on

Duration recording. Length of time in

occurrence of some behavior.

Frequency recording. Number of occurrence of

behavior.

Interval recording. Observation of one subject

during a fixed period of time.

Continuous recording. each and every

happening is recorded.

Checklist

Is Observation is culturally appropriate?

Things to consider: Discomfort, threat of being observed Issue of being an outsider Observer effect Possibilities for misinterpretations

Observation Ethical issues

Unobtrusiveness

is its greatest strength; also potential for abuse in invasion of privacy. can venture into places and gather data almost anywhere so be ethical.

You

Remember

our Human Subjects Protection

guidelines.

Checking in (Exercise)
What do you think? Answer YES or NO to each of the following 1. Observation involves seeing and listening 2. People may behave differently when they know they are being observed so it is better not to tell them 3. Structured observations provide more accurate and useful information 4. As long as you see it, it doesnt matter if you record what you saw 5. You, as someone who knows the program and the participants, are best suited to conduct the observations 6. The same principles of sampling apply to observation as to other forms of data collection

Answers
1. 2.

Observation involves seeing and listening YES People may behave differently when they know they are being observed so it is better not to tell them NO they often DO behave differently but that is not a reason not to tell them they are being observed. Structured observations provide more accurate and useful information NO unstructured observation also can be very useful As long as you see it, it doesnt matter if you record what you saw NO you must record your observations to have evidence of it existing You, as someone who knows the program and the participants, are best suited to conduct the observations NO various people might be well suited, though training may be necessary The same principles of sampling apply to observation as to other forms of data collection YES

3.

4.

5.

6.