COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Matt Blazek

What is Cognitive Psychology?

Study of the structure & functions of the mind Mind: element of a person that enables a person to be aware of the world Cognitive neuroscience: combination of brain & cognitive processes

Cognition

All the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. (Neisser, 1967). Requires the use of mental representations
Individual

differences based on experience

Principles of Cognitive Psych

1.

2.
3.

Mental processes guide behavior The mind can be studied scientifically Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors

Principle #1

Mental processes guide behavior

Bottom-up

processing: sensory input Top-down processing: memory

Behaviors are the result

Observable

actions of an organism

Principle #1 cont.

Mindset (Dweck, 2007)

Stereotyping

& discrimination
in nature

Memory
Reconstructive
False

memories

Perception
Cognitive

process that interprets and organizes sensory information

Principle #2

The mind can be studied scientifically

Laboratory
Experiments CAT scan fMRI

Natural

Case Studies

Cognition is necessary in daily life

Applied research

Principle #3

Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors

Effect

of culture on memory (Bartlett ,1932)

Memory is subject to distortions

Misattribution,

suggestibility, bias

Whorpf (1956) Hypothesis

Linguistic determinism Language impose different conceptions of reality Get ready for TOK!

Schema Theory
AKA- Concepts

Schemas

Mental representation of knowledge

Coined

by Bartlett (1932)

Cognitive schema
Networks

of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about the word

TOK Question: In what ways, if at all, do schemas alter our understanding and perception of the world?

Cognitive Schemas

Organize information about the world Can be linked to form systems Used for pattern recognition Help predict the future based on the past Represent knowledge

Practice

Construct a schema for the beach.

Beach

Schema Theory and Memory

Three stages
Encoding
Storage Retrieval

Encoding

Transforming sensory information into memory

Storage

Creating a biological trace of the encoded information in memory

May

be lost or consolidated (brought together)

Retrieval

Accessing and using the stored information

Remembering

Is schema theory valuable?

Uses
Categorizing
Inferences Memory

distortions Stereotyping/prejudice

Limits
How

are schemas formed? How do schemas work? Is it too vague?

TOK Link 1

To what extent can we trust our perception to represent reality?

TOK Link 2

To what extent does past experience allow us to predict the future?

Working Memory

Models

Models attempt to describe complex phenomena

Multi-store

model Working-memory model

Multi-store Model: Background

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968), among others An information processing model Basis of the working memory model
Rehearsa l

Encodin
g Retrieva l Los s

Sensory Input

Sensory Memory

Selectiv e Attentio

Short-term Memory

Long-term Memory

Decay n

Displaceme nt

Multi-store Model: Basic Assumptions

1.

2.

Memory consists of separate stores Memory processes are sequential

Rehearsa l Sensory Input

Encodin
g Retrieva l Los s

Sensory Memory

Selectiv e Attentio

Short-term Memory

Long-term Memory

Decay n

Displaceme nt

Multi-store Model: Basic Processes

1.

2.
3.

Attention Coding Rehearsal

Rehearsa l

Encodin
g Retrieva l Los s

Sensory Input

Sensory Memory

Selectiv e Attentio

Short-term Memory

Long-term Memory

Decay n

Displaceme nt

Multi-store Model: Sensory Memory

Related to the different senses

Modality

specific

Very short- a few seconds Very little makes it to STM

Selective

Attention
Rehearsa l

Encodin
g Retrieva l Los s

Sensory Input

Sensory Memory

Selectiv e Attentio

Short-term Memory

Long-term Memory

Decay n

Displaceme nt

Multi-store Model: Short-term Memory (STM)

Limited capacity
About

seven items 6-12 seconds

Requires attention and rehearsal

Practice
Rehearsa l Selectiv e Attentio Decay n Displaceme nt

Encodin
g Retrieva l Los s

Sensory Input

Sensory Memory

Short-term Memory

Long-term Memory

Multi-store Model: Long-term Memory (LTM)

Attended and rehearsed information is encoded Accessing encoded information is retrieval

May

be distorted
Rehearsa l

Encodin
g Retrieva l Los s

Sensory Input

Sensory Memory

Selectiv e Attentio

Short-term Memory

Long-term Memory

Decay n

Displaceme nt

Multi-store Model: Problems?

Too simplistic Early idea

Limited

information

Others?

Working Memory

Working Memory: Central Executive

Baddeley & Hitch (1974) Based on multi-store model Believe STM is more than one store

Working Memory: STM

Episodic buffer
Temporary

and passive display No processing

Phonological loop
Articulatory

control

system Phonological store

Visuospatial sketchpad
Inner

eye

Working Memory: Evidence

Dual-task research
Interference

tasks

Attempting to complete two tasks creates interference Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
Reading

and rehearsing numbers

Working Memory: Evaluation

Active storage & processing in STM Multi-tasking is possible

With

impairment

Pickering & Gathercole (2001)

Problems

with working memory impair learning

Working Memory: Evaluation

Holmes et al. (2008)

Ability to perform on visual tasks is linked to mathematics performance Individual differences in WM may be related to intelligence Supported by Hambrick & Meinz (2011), Meinz et al. (2012), Unsworth, Shrock, & Engle et al. (2004)

Eysenck (1988)

Memory & the Brain

Biological Factors in Memory: Kandel

Learning results in changes to synapses, creating memories Changes to or strengthening of connections results in neural networks
Neurons

linked for a particular task, memory, etc.

Lesioning
Cutting

of brain tissue

Structure of LTM

Explicit Memory

One of two major LTM systems

AKA

Declarative Memory

Facts Conscious retrieval Two Subsystems

Semantic Episodic

Semantic Memory

The What of your memory General knowledge

E.g.

Washington D.C. is the capital of the United States.

Episodic Memory

The When of memory Personal experience

E.g.

I went to Greece for a wedding in 2009.

Implicit Memory

Second major LTM system

AKA

Non-declarative memory

Uncouncious memories Two subsystems

Procedural Emotional

Procedural Memory

The How to do of memory Skills, habits, etc.

E.g.

Kicking a soccer ball.

Emotional Memory

The How it felt of memory Not clearly understood Emotional state

May

be linked with limbic system E.g. I was excited when I climbed Mt. Olympus.

The Brain and Memory

Hippocampus
Role

in formation of explicit memories Damage prevents formation of new explicit memories

Amygdala
Emotional

memories PTSD emotions difficult to forget

Brain Damage & Memory

The case of Clive Wearing

Oliver Sacks (2007) wrote about this case CW contracts herpes encephalitis Cannot form new memories
Clean

slate every few seconds

Suffered from amnesia

Anterograde Retrograde

Implicit memory intact

Played

music Emotional attachment

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new memories Does not impact existing memory
More

like Drew Barrymore

Still have old skills, facts, etc.

Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to recall old memories Can create new memories

But

what about recalling new memories?

Causes of both types include

Infection Trauma Drug

use/abuse

Cultural Factors

Cross-Cultural Research

Traditionally focused on Western Culture Expanding to compare East West

People

perform differently on different tasks

Memory Strategies

Cole & Scribner (1974)

US

and Kpelle of Liberia

in problem solving & remembering

Identified relevant words to test

Differences

School increased recall of items in categories

Those

who did not attend did not improve with

age

Cultural Context

What you learn & how you think impacted by culture Internet & globalization has lessened the impact Education systems are a reflection of culture

Chunking & Narratives

School children utilized chunking

Grouping

information into units Rehearsal

Using narratives improved recall for both groups

Narratives

utilize a story Chunking used by both groups

Narratives supported by Rogoff & Wadell (1982)

Mayan

children

TOK Culture Link #1

If learning is culturally mediated, what value is there in studying how people learn?

TOK Culture Link #2

To what extent can we trust the conclusions of psychological research to generalize to other cultures?

TOK Culture Link #3

If memory is distorted and culturally dependent, how can we verify, if at all, the validity of our knowledge? Can we be certain?

Reliability of Memory

Nature of Memory

Reconstructive in nature
Active

processing of information to make sense of the world of eye-witness testimony

Biases impact reconstruction

Weakness

Repression

Freud believed forgetting was due to repression

Unconcious

mechanism to keep unacceptable memories hidden One of his defense mechanisms

Will still have dreams involving negative event Therapy will recover these memories
Are

these memories true?

False Memories

To what extent can we trust recovered memories? Memories may be created due to events after the original
False

memories

Elizabeth Loftus (2002)

Washington

sniper What color was the van?

Serial Reproduction

Bartlett (1932)
Remembering

Memory is reconstructive Schemas influence recall Reproducing a story one person at a time
Telephone

game

Over subsequent reproductions:

Shorter Remain

coherent More convential

Reconstructing the Past

Bartlett (1932) People reconstruct memory to fit in existing schemas Greater complexity = greater distortion Efforts after meaning
Attempting

to find meaningful

patterns

Memory is an imaginative reconstruction experience

Eyewitness Testimony

Elizabeth Loftus (begins in 1970s; Loftus & Palmer, 1974) Nature of questions influences memory
How

tall was that man? Will you describe the height of the person you saw?

Single words alter recall How fast were the cars going when they ______ into each other?
Bumped,Collided collided, Bumped contacted, hit, Smashed Hit

smashed Contacte
d

40.8

39.3

38.1

34.0

31.8

Accident Test #2

Was there broken glass?

Smashed:
Hit:

32%

14% Control: 6%

There was no broken glass False memories are possible Ecological validity (Yuille & Cutshall (1986)
Cultural

bias Question bias Skill bias

Research Methods

PET Scans & Cognition

Positron Emission Tomography Can measure glucose consumption

Cellular

level changes

Alzheimers
Early

reduction in hippocampus metabolism Mosconi (2005) Needs replication

MRI Scans & Cognition

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Creates fMRI

3-D picture

Detects changes in oxygen use More active areas of the brain use more oxygen May also help detect Alzheimers early Kilts (2003) used to investigate product

Problem Solving & Heuristics

Trial & Error v Algorithms

Trial & error problem solving

Edison

& the light bulb

Algorithms
Methodical,

logical rule Guaranteed method to solve problem

Option #3: Heuristics

Heuristics
Simple

thinking strategy Quick judgments Efficient Error-prone

SPLOYOCHYG
907,200

possible permutations

Insight

Sudden flashes of inspiration

May

be called intuition

The pieces just fit Burst of activity in right temporal lobe May be part of humor
Sherlock Hunters

Holmes

Obstacles to Problem Solving #1

Confirmation bias (Wason, 1960)

Searching

only for evidence that confirms hypothesis What rule was used to create the following set of numbers? 2, 4, 6
Create

solutions- I will confirm or deny their conformity Only rule may be proposed

We seek evidence to verify rather than refute

Obstacles to Problem Solving #2

Fixation
Inability

to see a problem from a fresh perspective

to approach a problem in a particular

Mental set
Tendency

way
Usually

has been successful

Functional fixedness
Only

thinking in term of the normal function

Heuristics (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974)

Representativeness heuristic
Judging

likelihood based on how well it matches a prototype Ignores other relevant factors
Short,

slim, & likes to read poetry More likely to be: professor or truck driver

Availability heuristic
Estimating

likelihood based upon availability in

memory Ex. Occurrence of k as first or third letter Casinos

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge

I am 98% certain that the population of New Zealand is between ___ & ___. 1/3 wrong (Kahneman & Taversky, 1979)

Oh, Hitler, why Russia? How long will it take you to write your critique?
Submit estimate & document hours Students routinely underestimate (Buehler et al., 1994)

Overconfidence increases happiness, make decisions easier, seem more credible (Baumeister, 1989)

Can learn to be more realistic with feedback

Framing & Belief

Framing
The

way an issue is posed Significantly impacts decisions & judgements

Belief bias
Tendency

of preexisting beliefs to distort logical

thinking Alters validity judgments

Belief perseverance
Clinging

to initial conceptions after basis is

rejected

TOK & Problem Solving

How, if at all, does the overconfidence theory help us understand the our knowledge?

Cognition & Emotion

What are Emotions?

Not necessarily a conscious process Appraisal of situation

Interpretation

Multiple components

Components of Emotions

Physiological changes
Autonomic

& endocrine systems

Subjective Feeling
Happy,

sad, etc.

Associated behavior
Smile,

cry, etc.

Biological Factors in Emotion

AKA Physiological

The Emotional Brain

Amygdala is critical for emotional memories Hormone release influences memory

Adrenaline

The Emotional Brain

LeDoux

(1999)

Two emotion pathways

Short

route Long route

Short Route v Long Route

Short route
Thalamus

to amygdala
to sensory cortex/hippocampus to

Long route
Thalamus

amygdala Involves brainstem

Both help activate the fight or flight response

Cognitive Factors in Emotion

AKA Subjective Feelings

Appraisal

Evaluations related to how the situation will impact personal well-being

Lazarus

(1975)

Positive & negative emotions

Both

are responses to stressors

Experience of stress can be moderated through appraisal

Lazarus

& Folkman (1984)

Coping Strategies

Folkman & Lazarus (1988) Problem-focused coping

Change

the situation or problem

Emotion-focused coping
Handle

emotions Does not address circumstances of stress

Evidence of Appraisal

Speisman et al. (1964)

Emotions

can be altered by manipulating the circumstances Interpretation influences stress

Does this have ecological validity?

Flashbulb Theory

Arousal & Memory

LeDoux (1999)
Arousal

of emotions can facilitate memory

Emotions influence perception

May

not be accurate

Flashbulb Memory

Brown & Kulik (1977) Emotional memory that is vivid and detailed
Seem

to be recorded like a photograph flash

JFK, MLK, RFK assassinations were remembered vividly May be neural mechanism
Neuroscience

confirms emotions facilitate

memory

Doubting Neisser

Importance of event may not be known when it occurs

Rehearsal

of important events strengthens

memory Flashbulb memory is merely a schema for the event Neisser (1982)

Neisser & Harsch (1992)

Challenger

explosion 40% had memory distortion after two yeasrs

Attitudes & Beliefs

Talarico & Rubin (2003)

Greater

confidence with emotion Accuracy not improved

Breckler (1994)
Current

attitudes & beliefs influence recall about blood donation negative relationship alters perception of past interactions

Holmberg & Holmes (1994)

Current

Happiness

Happiness & Economics

Happiness is the sum of positive emotions minus the sum of negative emotions
Bentham

(1790)

Pleasure and the absence of pain

Actions

that promote happiness

should play in role in happiness

Menger & Keynes

Government

What is Happiness?

Happiness may be a cultural construct

Weiner

Up to 50% of happiness is genetic

Lyubomirsky

(2001)

Cognitive Factors in Happiness

Does Wealth Bring Happiness?

Research does not support this assumption

What

may account for this?

yourself in relation to others what you will gain and how likely it is to

Social comparison theory (Festinger)

Assess

Level of aspiration theory (Rotter)

Evaluate

achieve General expectancy

Discrepancy Between Wealth & Happiness

1/3 of Americans are happy

Steady

since 1950s Myers & Diener (1995)

Upward comparison
Leads

to dissatisfaction Hagerty (2003)

Relative deprivation
Envy

(Merton & Kitt, 1950)

What Increases Happiness?

It is normal to believe the future will be happier

Media Success
Not

+ money = happiness

reality

Satisfaction with salary brings happiness

Johnson

& Kruger (2006) Comparison to others reduces happiness

The Illusory Correlation

Faulty associations
May

be related to happiness & wealth

that high status person is:

Conway, di Fazio, & Mayman (1999)

Belief
Less

Happier

angry Less depressed Less fearful Same in love

Sociocultural Factors in Happiness

The Key to Happiness

Happiness can be achieved through training of mind and heart, reshaping attitudes and outlook
Dalai

Llama, Art of Happiness (1998)

State of mind is more important than circumstances Compassion is the basis of happiness Empathy
Being

able to understand others

Bhutan or Qatar?

Qatar is one of the richest countries on earth

Not

one of the happiest countries

Bhutan is a poor country

Focused

on happiness King coined Gross National Happiness

Contrasts

with Western GNP

Weiner (2008) concludes there are many ways to be happy

Happiness

is cultural

Whos Happiest?

According to research, Denmark

2/3

are very satisfied with life

Christensen, Herskind, & Vaupel (2006) asked why

Welfare

state High level of income equality Good economy Democracy Realistic expectations

Map of Happiness (Adrian White)

Calculating World Happiness

Meta-analysis
Uses data from multiple studies Only statistical calculations Large amount of data increases validity

The Rankings
1. Denmark 2. Switzerland 23. United States 41. UK 82. China 90. Japan 167. Russia

What About US?

Statistical Analysis

How is this map misleading?

Subjective Well-Being

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Combines happiness & satisfaction (Inglehart et al., 2004) Puerto Rico Mexico Denmark Ireland Iceland United States fifteenth

TOK & Happiness

To what extent is happiness a valid construct when it cannot be compared across cultures?

Positive Psychology

White (2008)
Current

area of interest in economics & psychology

Focused on empirical study of positive emotions, strengths-based character, and healthy institutions
Seligman, Smile
Even

founder of Positive Psychology

at a funeral

Healthy, Wealthy, & Wise

According to BBC, 81% of people believe government should invest in happiness Correlations with happiness
Health

Wealth
Education

Interdependent factors

Culture of Happiness

Most research is conducted in West Life satisfaction is related to income

Money

fulfills basic needs Diener & Smiley

Also associated with

Trust Safety

Lack

of corruption

TOK & Happiness (Again)

In what ways is the government responsible for individual happiness in general?

In

the United States? In another specific culture?

Biological Factors in Happiness

Evolutionary Theory

People adapt to their environment Habituation

We

are used to the way things are

Adaptation to both positive & negative factors Humans focus on negative

Threats

to safety

Striving for more

Genetics

Lykken et al. (1996) Innate baseline or set-point Happiness Twin Study

Identical twins similar in happiness score

Regardless of environment

Fraternal twins less similar

Genetic influence for happiness

Up to 50% is a set-point Only 10% is situational

What about the other 40%?

The How of Happiness (Lyubomirsky 2007)

Devote time to family & friends Easily express gratitude Offer help (Swartz, 1999) Optimistic about future Enjoy life- live in present Exercise Lifelong goals Cope well with stress