Some Notes about

Centrifugal Compressors
TOSI Giampiero
2
Agenda
A LITTLE BIT OF THERMODYNAMICS
Isentropic Efficiency
Polytropic Efficiency

ELEMENTS OF FLUID MECHANICS
Euler Equation
Dimensional Analysis
Performance Curves
A Little Bit of
Thermodynamics
4

COMPRESSOR

ENERGY
GAS GAS
PRESSURE
RATIO
What is a Compressor?
5

The input is the energy coming from a driver, the output is the
pressure ratio, i.e. the ratio between the discharge pressure and
suction pressure.

This is the simplest possible model that take into consideration
two fundamental elements: how much we have to pay and what
we obtain.

The question is:

The pressure ratio of the gas flowing through the
compressor is the only effect of the power input?
Whatever happens in the machine it is known that a certain
amount of energy is lost.
6

COMPRESSOR

ENERGY
GAS GAS
PRESSURE
RATIO
LOSSES
7
For a required pressure ratio the
absorbed energy is higher than the one
in case of no losses.

For the same duty, a compressor is
better then another if it can achieve the
same pressure ratio with lower losses
and therefore with lower absorbed
energy.
8
Efficiency
The ratio between the advantages we can
obtain with the use of a certain tool and the
price we have to pay

OR

The ratio between what we would pay to
obtain a needed result in a perfect world and
what we pay to obtain the same result in the
real world
9
WHICH IS THE THERMODYNAMIC
PROCESS INSIDE
THE COMPRESSOR?
10
Adiabatic Process
Gas does not exchange heat
with the external environment
First law of thermodynamics

If process is adiabatic
H W A =
0 = Q
( ) T P f H , =
H W Q A =
H W A =
0 = Q
( ) T P f H , =
11
ISENTROPIC
PROCESS
same suction conditions Ps,Ts
same discharge pressure Pd
lower discharge temperature Tis
The isentropic process associated to the real adiabatic process has
A Further Hypothesis: No Losses
12
Under the hypothesis of perfect gas
Isentropic Work

W
K
K
RT
P
P
is s
d
s
K
K
=

|
\

|
.
|

|
\

|
.
|
|

1
1
1

Along
}
= vdp W
13
Isentropic Efficiency
The ratio of isentropic work to the total
adsorbed energy
q
is
is
W
W
=
The ratio between what we would pay to
obtain a needed result in a perfect world and
what we pay to obtain the same result in the
real world
Isentropic efficiency is a function of pressure ratio
14
The heat developed by losses point by point
modifies the characteristics of the gas
TOTAL ADSORBED ENERGY
minus
ISENTROPIC WORK
LOSSES
More work to compress the fluid
but also
more reusable energy stored in the gas
15
Losses always associated to the real process within compressor
No analytical way to describe the real process point by point
How can we simulate the real process?
Characteristics of the ideal substitute
process reversible same discharge pressure and
temperature good estimation of reusable energy
transmitted to the gas
16
Work input not influenced by heat input
First attempt of substitute process

Isoentrope from suction conditions to the
final discharge pressure WORK
INPUT ONLY


Isobar at constant discharge pressure to
achieve the discharge temperature HEAT
INPUT ONLY
Less reusable energy stored in the gas
17
Increase the number of steps to improve the model
The heat generated by losses in a non reversible
real process can be simulated by heat given from
the external in reversible way through a number of steps
Each step
Isoentrope
WORK INPUT ONLY

Isobar
HEAT INPUT ONLY
18
The equation define the theoretical process called
POLYTROPE
For each step the isentropic work
dw vdp
is
=

e is the constant for which the path passes
through suction and discharge conditions
and
the isentropic efficiency of each step
It is possible to define the equation
dw vdp
is
=
dH
vdp
e =
19
The sum of all the isentropic works
step by step along the polytrope
Polytropic Work
W vdp
p
pol
=
}
.
For a perfect gas
W
n
n
RT
P
P
p s
d
s
n
n
=

|
\

|
.
|

|
\

|
.
|
|

1
1
1

W vdp
p
pol
=
}
.

20
Polytropic Efficiency
For a perfect gas
The ratio of polytropic work to the total
adsorbed energy
q
p
p
W
W
=
q
p
n
n
K
K
=

1
1

Polytropic efficiency is not pressure ratio dependant
The ratio between the advantage we
can obtain with the use of a certain tool
and the price we have to pay
Elements of
Fluid Mechanics
22
CUSTOMER NEEDS
Different Points of View
MANUFACTURER NEEDS
A way to compare compressor of different
manufacturers for the same service
A method to check the performance of the
machine at site
Define a relationship between the
performance and the geometry
Verify the
performance
Achieve the performance
23
A Working Impeller
Normally the tangential component of C
1
is negligible
24
The radial component of gas
velocity is associated to the flow
Multiply the inlet radial
velocity by the area at inlet to
obtain the volume flow at
impeller suction
The tangential component of
gas velocity is associated to
the work made on the fluid
Euler equation
25
The energy exchanged, per unit of weight of fluid, is
equal to the product of the variation of the momentum
of the fluid between impeller outlet and inlet by its
angular speed
THE LAW OF MOMENTUM CONSERVATION
Euler Equation
u u
C u C u W
1 1 2 2
=

In the hypothesis that C
1u
is negligible
u
C u W
2 2
=

u u
C u C u W
1 1 2 2
=
u
C u W
2 2
=
26

Based on mechanical principles


FIRST LAW EQUATION
Based on thermal quantities
W is the same!
Euler Equation
u
C u W
2 2
=
H W A =
27
The variables representing a physical
phenomenon are put together into groups that
are dimensionless
Dimensional Analysis
Generalise the results of experimental works
carried out on models of the real stages
independent of the actual size
of the machine
independent of the actual
impellers speed
independent of gas characteristics
28
The ratio between the radial component of the gas
velocity at inlet and impeller speed in the same point
Inlet Flow Coefficient
t

1 1 1
1
b D u
Q
i
=

1
identifies gas
angles at inlet
1
1
1
u
C
r
=

t
1 1
1
b D
Q
C
i
r
=

3600
4
2
2 2
1
t

D u
Q
i
=

or
1
1
1
u
C
r
=
t
1 1
1
b D
Q
C
i
r
=
t

1 1 1
1
b D u
Q
i
=
3600
4
2
2 2
1
t

D u
Q
i
=
29
The ratio between the radial component of the gas
velocity at outlet and impeller peripheral speed
Outlet Flow Coefficient
A different form
2
2
2
u
C
r
=

t
2 2
2
b D
Q
C
o
r
=

t

2 2 2
2
b D u
Q
o
=

const
v
v
i
o
1 2
=

2
2
2
u
C
r
=
t

2 2 2
2
b D u
Q
o
=
const
v
v
i
o
1 2
=
t
2 2
2
b D
Q
C
o
r
=
30
The ratio or the impeller peripheral speed to the
velocity of sound at impeller inlet
Peripheral Mach Number
A measure of gas compressibility
in
a
u
Mu
2
=

The lower the Mach, the lower the
change of density and vice versa
in
a
u
Mu
2
=
31
Very low Re
Reynolds Number
It can be read as the ratio of inertia forces to viscous
surface forces

ub
= Re

Inertia forces negligible if
compared to viscous forces
gas suction density
u impeller peripheral speed
b impeller exit width
dynamic viscosity

ub
= Re
32
A measure of the impeller capacity to
energise the gas
Head Coefficient
The ratio between the tangential component of the gas
velocity at outlet and impeller peripheral speed
2
2
u
C
u
= t

t
2
2
u W =

u
C u W
2 2
=

Euler equation
2
2
u
C
u
= t
t
2
2
u W =
u
C u W
2 2
=
33
Head Coefficient and
Outlet Flow Coefficient
Ideal case of infinite
number of blades
2 2
cot 1 | t g =

2 2
cot | o t g =

slip factor < 1
Relative velocity at outlet with
the blades trailing direction
Real case
Head coefficient
reduced
2 2
cot 1 | t g =
2 2
cot | o t g =
34
Assuming that the change of specific volume
along the impeller vane is negligible
const
1 2
=

2 1
cot | o t g const =

const
1 2
=
Head Coefficient and
Inlet Flow Coefficient
2 1
cot | o t g const =
35
Losses
Friction losses
Impact losses
Dissipation terms
associated with
friction phenomena
between the walls
and the gas
Entry losses associated
with incidence between
the gas and the blades
leading edge
36
Polytropic Head Coefficient
From head coefficient
subtract the contribution of
impact and friction losses
The work contained in the fluid
under the form of potential and
kinetic energy
37
Polytropic Efficiency
The ratio of polytropic
head coefficient to head
coefficient
38
Non Dimensional Performance Curves
( )
1
t f =

( )
1
tq g
p
=

( )
1
q h
p
=

( )
1
t f =
( )
1
tq g
p
=
( )
1
q h
p
=
39
Dimensional Performance Curves
( )
1
t f =

( )
1
tq g
p
=

( )
1
q h
p
=

1 2
2
2
4

t
u D Q
i
=

Geometry and rotational speed
t q
p p
u H
2
2
=

t
2
2
u W =

Gas composition and
inlet conditions
1
1
1

|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
n
n
s s
p
s d
RT z
n
n
H
P P

n
n
s
d
s d
P
P
T T
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

d
d d
d
P
RT z
v =

Perfect gas
hypothesis
( )
1
t f =
( )
1
tq g
p
=
( )
1
q h
p
=
1 2
2
2
4

t
u D Q
i
=
t
2
2
u W =
t q
p p
u H
2
2
=
1
1
1

|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
n
n
s s
p
s d
RT z
n
n
H
P P
n
n
s
d
s d
P
P
T T
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
d
d d
d
P
RT z
v =
40
The characteristic of standard stages have been obtained
by testing in NP fluidynamic laboratory.

STAGE CODE:

- A letter that identifies the family
- A number that identifies the subfamily
- The external impeller diameter
Standard Stages
41
Test rig for standard stages
42
Stage in the test rig
43
FAMILY SUBFAMILY
| *10
4
L
24
45
432350
L
57
40
316256
L
710
30
231187
B
112
58
1120190
A
112
3730
1180145
D
18
30
27580
Q
111
45
535195
F
313
16
22050
G
513
16
18040
H
512
16
18050
W
214
40
856463
V
214
40
856463

| = exit blade angle = suction flow coefficient

44
Each FAMILY-SUBFAMILY of performance curves has
been memorized as a function of non dimensional
variables.

= suction flow coefficient






Q (m
3
/h) suction volumetric flow
U
2
(m/s) peripheral speed
D
2
(m) impeller diameter
3600
4
2
2
2
1
- - -
-
=
U D
Q
t

45
Suction flow coefficient corrected with specific
volumes ratio:




Peripheral Mach number:





a
2
(m/s) = sonic velocity at inlet condition


01
06
V
V

2
2
a
U
M
U
=
46


-POLYTROPIC EFFICIENCY

q
p
= f ()


-HEAD COEFFICIENT

= f [-(V
06
/V
01
)]
Performance Non Dimensional Curves
47
Standard Stage Selection Range
48
The performance non dimensional curves of each
single stage are stored in a computer program and
they can be managed through a proper equation of
the state for the real gasses.

The curves of the single stages are achieved by
testing.

The computer code can select the stage for flow
coefficient values near to the design one and then
compose the machine to obtain the total required
curves.
49
Knowing

- Inlet conditions in terms of pressure,
temperature and suction flow
- Gas composition
- Impellers characteristics
- State equation

It is possible to calculate the conditions at stage outlet
which are the inlet condition of the next stage.
For all the compressor stages the procedure is the
same as for the first one until final conditions are
reached.
50
Compressor performance curves consist of a plot showing
at various constant RPM and different suction flow the
variation of the following characteristics:

- Polytropic Head
- Polytropic efficiency
- Pressure Ratio
- Power
- Discharge temperature
- Discharge pressure

To reach the total performance curves of a machine it is
necessary to gather the curves of the various stages.
51
Performance Curves
52
Performance Curves
Different Parameters
53
Typical Expected Performance Curves
54
- Significant improvements in the efficiency of a
centrifugal compressor stage can be obtained
using vaned diffuser

- Normally a vaned diffuser reduces the extension of
the operating region of the compressor

- The diffuser vanes (number and position) must be
selected considering the structural interference
with the other components of the stage
Vaned Diffuser Characteristics
55
Vaned Diffuser
56








At relatively low flow rates, 60 70% of those of maximum
efficiency (design conditions), instability in operation can arises,
which can be noted from the outside since it results in very
pronounced flow pulsation, shaft vibrations, instability in axial
thrust, abnormal noise level (typical whistling), which can vary
highly depending on the case. This phenomenon, known as
surge, occurs when the machine is required to operate at a
compression ratio close the maximum that the compressor can
furnish at the speed at which it is running.
Slightly less severe phenomena can be noted even before
reaching the maximum of the characteristic curve (pressure
pulsation at frequency much lower than the speed of rotation of
the compressor (10 30%). They are due to rotating stall, i.e.
detachment of the fluid stream from some blades of an impeller
or a diffuser.
Surge and Rotating Stall
57
If the flow rate is increased beyond the design value
at constant speed, the pressure drops due the friction
on the fixed and mobile ducts and the pressure drops
due the high incidence increase substantially,
resulting in an enormous reduction in efficiency.
It may happen that in some duct the speed of the
sound is reached and in this case there is an almost
vertical drop in the characteristic curve operation.
This phenomenon should be taken into consideration
especially in compressors which process very heavy
gases that have low speed of sound.
Choking or Stonewall